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COMMERCIAL VIOLET CULTURE. 




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COMMERCIAL 



VIOLET CULTURE. 



A Treatise on the Growing and Marketing 
of Violets for Profit* 



i BY 

B. T. GALLOWAY, 

Chief of the Division of Vegetable Physiology and Pathology, 
United States Department of Agriculture. 



t&r* && t&^* 



NEW YORK. 

A. T. DE LA MARE PTG. & PUB. CO. Ltd. 

1899. 




44263 



Copyright. 

Entered According to Act of Congress 

in the Year 1899 

\y A. T. De La Mare Printing and Publishing Co. Ltd. 

New York. 

TWO COPIES RECEIVED, 



;&« 




SECOND COPY, 



All Rights Reserved. 



PREFACE. 

Violet growing as a business has not received the 
attention given to some other crops. This is prob- 
ably due to the fact that the violet as generally 
O rown is less profitable than the rose, carnation, or 
even the chrysanthemum. More people have em- 
barked in this business and failed than is the case 
with any other crop, and for this reason we believe 
that it is one of the most promising fields for the 
young, energetic, and intelligent man to enter. Who- 
ever enters it, however, must recognize at the start 
that there are many difficulties, and that to be suc- 
cessful means much labor, patience, and determina- 
tion to overcome all obstacles. The knowledge 
necessary to succeed can come only through expe- 
rience. Reading will help, but without the ability 
to apply what is learned by reading little progress 
can be made. We have gone over this ground 
pretty thoroughly, and in looking back can see that 
our experience in many cases was dearly bought. 
To save others from making mistakes that fell to our 
lot we have in some instances made statements 
which might be considered as dogmatic. <; We have: 
done this for the reason that we were many times 
led away by general statements, which, had they 



been specific would have saved us much time and 
money. We have endeavored to give every neces- 
sary detail for handling the soil, erection of houses 
and frames, the management of the plants, and 
marketing of the flowers, and finally we have shown 
what it costs to grow a violet plant, what such a 
plant under fair conditions should yield, and what in 
our experience may be looked upon as a fair profit. 

From the facts given it will be seen that no big 
fortunes are to be made in violet growing, but if a 
man loves Nature and that quiet and peace which 
work with her should always bring, there is a 
chance here to open her doors. Thus a love for all 
that is good and beautiful may be cultivated and a 
respectable living made at the same time. 

1 wish to express my thanks to Mr. P. H. Dorsett, 
who shared with me all the trials and vexations 
which fall to the lot of beginners in this work. 
He is now a successful grower and many of the 
illustrations given are from his houses. 



B. T. GALLOWAY 



Washington, D. C, 

July ist, 1899. 



TABLE OF CONTENTS. 



CHAPTER I. 

Page 

Introduction. 17 

Single Varieties 17 

Russian Violet 17 

Welsiana 17 

Luxonne 18 

California, or Madame E. Arene 18 

Princess of Wales, or Princesse de Galles ... 18 

Double Varieties 19 

Neapolitan 19 

Lady Hume Campbell 19 

Marie Louise .... . . 19 

Farquhar and Imperial 20 

Origin and Introduction of Varieties 20 

Culture, Past and Present 25 

CHAPTER II. 

The Soil 30 

CHAPTER III. 

Construction of Houses and Frames 43 

Construction of Houses 43 

Construction of Frames 77 

CHAPTER IV. 

Water Supply 88 



CHAPTER V. 

Page 

Propagating, Selecting, Planting, Cleaning, Watering, 

etc 9 2 

Propagating 92 

Selection of Stock for Vigor and Productiveness . .109 

Planting 116 

Cleaning, Watering, Syringing, Mulching, and 

Feeding 124 

CHAPTER VI. 
Temperature Conditions and Ventilation 130 

CHAPTER VII. 
Handling and Marketing the Crop 140 

CHAPTER VIII. 

Diseases and Insect Enemies . . ' 159 

Diseases and their Treatment 159 

Spot, or Spot Disease 161 

Wilt, or Stem Rot 170 

Nanism, or Stuntedness 174 

Scald, or Edge Burn 178 

Oedema, or Wart Disease 182 

Crown Rot . . . ■ 185 

Root Galls, or Nematodes 187 

Insects and Other Pests 190 

Red Spider . 190 

Green and Brown Aphides 198 

Cut Worms 208 

Sawfly . . . 210 

Gall Fly Maggots 211 

Phlyctcenia ferrugalis . . . . „ ... . '. 214 

CHAPTER IX. 
Cost of Production and Profits 216 



ILLUSTRATIONS. 



Page 
Frontispiece. 
i. Type of Single Violet 21 

2. Type of Double Violet 23 

3. Characteristic Growth of California and Marie 

Louise Compared 24 

4. Mixing Soil. Spreading Manure in Layers Be- 

tween the Soil . .... 36 

5. Mixing Soil. Breaking and Pulverizing the Sod 

Preparatory to Putting it down with Layers of 
Manure 37 

6. Sash House with Sash off 44 

7. House twelve feet wide, six feet to Ridge; side 

ventilators of glass 45 

8. Type of Even Span House, twelve feet wide, show- 

ing Method of Running Heating Pipes and 
Constructing Beds 46 

9. Type of Even Span House, twelve feet wide, with 

two deep walks, showing Heating Pipes and 
Method of Constructing Beds, Roofs, and Ends 48 

10. Shed at North End of Houses, showing Method of 

Construction 49 

11. Interior of Shed shown in fig. 10 5° 

12. Roofs of Twelve Foot Houses, showing Method of 

Construction and of Attaching Ventilators . . 51 

13. A Twelve Foot House, showing Method of Con- 

structing and Attaching Side Ventilators ... 54 

14. Fastening Pipes to Posts by Tin Clips 57 

15. Fastening Pipes to Posts by Bent Wire Nails ... 5 



Page 

16. Interior of Twelve Foot House, showing Method 

of Constructing South End and Door 58 

17. Interior of House, showing Method of Connecting 

Flow Pipe with Four Returns 59 

18. Ridge and Furrow House Construction. Method 

of Making Gutter and Attaching Sash Bar . . 60 

19. Interior Construction. Method of Connecting Re- 

turns at North End of House 61 

20. Construction of Single House. Method of Making 

Gutter, Attaching Sash Bar, and Fitting Side 
Ventilators 62 

21. Method of Splicing Ridge . 64 

22. House twenty-four feet wide 65 

23. Constructing House twenty-four "feet wide; Second 

Step, Making Beds and Walks ........ 66 

24. Constructing House twenty-four feet wide; Third 

Step, Running Gutters and Notching Plate 
around Posts 67 

25. Construction. Putting Up the Roof 72 

26. Temporary House 76 

27. Simple Cold Frame 78 

28. Violets in Frame, Covered with Lath Screen ... 80 

29. Violets in Heated Frames, Shaded by Rough 

Boards '. . . . ' 82 

30. Violets in Heated Frames. Summer Shading by 

Boards 84 

31. Cuttings with Hard, Wiry Roots, from Divided 

Crowns 93 

32. Various Kinds of Cuttings from a Divided Crown . 94 

33. Common Form of Cutting from Divided Crown . . 96 

34. Lath Box, or Flat, for Rooted Cuttings ...... 98 

35. Sand-Rooted Cuttings, Ready to Plant in Flats 

Filled with Soil 102 

36. Sand-Rooted Cuttings, Ideal Type, Ready to Put 

in Soil 104 



Page 

37. Pedigree Plant, with Tag showing Dates of Pick- 

ing and Yield of Flowers no 

38. Bed of Pedigree Plants 112 

39. Violet Culture Under Lath Sheds in California . .120 

40. Field Culture of Violets in Virginia 122 

41. Violets bunched for Philadelphia market; some of 

the flowers projecting from the bunch 142 

42. Violets bunched for Washington market, using 

Princess of Wales leaves 144 

43. Picking Violets 150 

44. Leaves of California Violet Wired Together for 

Bunching Flowers 152 

45. Leatherette Shipping Box, Open 154 

46. Shipping Box, showing Wire Screen for Holding 

Bunches 155 

47. Shipping Box, Closed and Strapped 156 

48. Spot Disease — Early Effects 162 

49. Spot Disease on Hardy English Violets 164 

50. Spot Disease Artificially Produced 166 

51. Rooted Campbell Cuttings, showing Effects of 

Thielavia on the roots 171 

52. Plants Stunted by Strong Fertilizer 175 

53. Edge Burn, brought on by Cold Soil . . ... . . 178 

54. Leaves and Flowers Injured by Botrytis 180 

55. „ Oedema, or Wart Disease 183 

56. Crown Rot 185 

57. Nematodes, or Root Galls 188 

58. Nozzle Used in Spraying Plants for the Destruc- 

tion of Red Spider 192 

59. Method of Determining Cubic Contents of Houses 204 

60. Injuries to Violet Leaves by Gall Fly Maggot . .212 

61. Larvse and Moths of Phlyctcenia ferrugalis . . .214 



Commercial Violet Culture, 



CHAPTER I. 

INTRODUCTION. 
The sweet violet, Viola odorata, from 
which our cultivated forms have doubtless arisen, 
is widely distributed over Europe and Asia, but 
is not found native in America. The violet has 
been cultivated from remote times, first probably 
as a medicinal plant, but later to satisfy a love for 
the beautiful. Following are some of the more 
important forms now grown: 

SINGLE VARIETIES. 

Russian violet* Very hardy and free flower- 
ing"; flowers medium violet* in color, fairly good 
size. 

Welsiana* Plant much branched; foliage 



*In referring to the colors of violets we have used Ridgway's 
Nomenclature of Colors, published by Little, Brown & Co., Boston. 
The principal colors are the true violet, as will be found in Princess 
of Wales, and the various shades of mauve. Mauves are a mixture 
of white with violet. The mauves therefore may be dark or light, 
depending upon the amount of white present. Marie Louise is a true 
mauve; Campbell a light mauve. 



l8 INTRODUCTION. 

rather soft, light green; flowers large, on long 
stalks; color true violet; a valuable variety, but 
not so amenable to culture as some others. 

Luxonne. A valuable variety, with large 
flowers of a dark violet color; foliage stronger 
in texture and of a richer green than the ordinary 
Russian violet ; flowers from September to 
spring. 

California, or Madame £♦ Arene* We use the 
name California because it has become so well 
established that it is not practicable at this 
time to change it. This violet is unquestionably 
one of the most valuable of the single sorts. 
The plant grows like a weed and flowers pretty 
regularly throughout the entire winter; foliage 
soft and lightish green in color; flowers large, 
light violet in color, with stems sometimes eight 
inches to a foot in length. 

Princess of Wales, or Princesse de Galles* All 
things considered, this is the best single violet 
that has come to our attention. The plant is 
very vigorous and has the compact habit of 
growth of the double sorts; leaves dark rich 
green, of firm texture, making them very valu- 
able for bunching ; flowers large, of a true rich, 
violet color, and borne on long, strong stems. 
There are single violets white, yellow, and pink 
in color, but it is not necessary to give any details 
in regard to them, for the reason that there is 
practically no commercial demand for them. 



VARIETIES. 19 

DOUBLE VARIETIES. 

Neapolitan. One of the oldest of the double 
sorts and doubtless the parent of a number of our 
most valuable varieties; growth compact; leaves 
rather small ; flowers pushing up straight through 
the crown, borne on strong, straight stems ; color 
very light mauve (commonly called light laven- 
der) ; hardy and comparatively free flowering ; 
blooms from September to spring. 

Lady Hume Campbell. More vigorous than 
the last, with larger leaves and flowers; the 
flowers push up through the crown and stand 
above the leaves on straight, strong stems ; color 
of the flowers, when properly grown, a mauve, 
several shades lighter than Marie Louise ; flowers 
freely and continuously from September to May 
and is comparatively free from disease. 

Marie Louise. The most widely cultivated 
violet in this country, and the one for which there 
is the greatest demand. This violet is not so vigor- 
ous as the last and is therefore more subject to the 
attacks of a number of diseases; the leaves are 
large, of a rich green color, but inclined to be soft ; 
the flowers push out from the sides of the crown 
and are usually found resting on the ground; 
flower stalks not so straight as Campbell, making 
the flowers more difficult to bunch; color of 
flowers true mauve ; base of petals white, splotched 
with red. The red marks are very characteristic 
of this variety and never occur, so far as we 



20 INTRODUCTION. 

are aware, in any except closely related strains. 

Farquhar and Imperial. Both of these forms, 
so far as we have been able to determine, are 
merely vigorous strains of Marie Louise. 

Of other double varieties there may be men- 
tioned Swanley White (pure white) and Madam 
Millet (pink). Both of these are occasionally 
grown, but there is no great demand for them 
anywhere. 

ORIGIN AND INTRODUCTION OF VARIETIES. 

Single violets in this country are as yet in 
comparatively little demand, and for this reason 
Marie Louise and Campbell are the principal 
varieties grown. There seems to be a growing 
interest in singles, however, and on this account 
and furthermore for the reason that the leaves are 
exceedingly useful in bunching, it would be well 
for every grower to devote a part of his space to 
some vigorous-growing kind like California or 
Princess of Wales. Six or seven hundred plants 
of either of these varieties will, with good culti- 
vation, give sufficient leaves for bunching the 
flowers from eight thousand Campbell or Louise. 
In this way the foliage of the Campbell; and 
Louise is left to support the flowers — a great advan- 
tage in many ways. The California and Princess 
of Wales, furthermore, will yield a sufficient num- 
ber of flowers to well pay for the space devoted to 
them, so that altogether it is an advantage to 
have them. 



ORIGIN AND INTRODUCTION OF VARIETIES. 21 




l.—Type ol single violet (Princess of Wales), reduced 
one-third. 



22 INTRODUCTION. 

There has been much discussion as to the 
origin of the Marie Louise and Campbell violets. 
The Marie Louise has been known under various 
names in France and Germany for sixty or 
seventy years. It was introduced into this 
country in 1871 by Mr. John Cook, of Baltimore. 
Mr. Cook obtained the stock through Schuer, of 
Heidelberg, Germany, who advertised it as the 
best violet belonging to the Parma class. After 
growing it for two years Mr. Cook sold large 
quantities of his stock to Peter Henderson and 
John Henderson, of New York, and Mr. Dreer, of 
Philadelphia. The flowers created a sensation 
and the plants in consequence were in great 
demand. 

We find a record of the Lady Hume Camp- 
bell violet as far back as 1884 in the Gardeners' 
Chronicle, of London, England. It is said here 
that the variety had been seen growing in the 
gardens of Harefield Court, Rickmansworth, and 
that it was exceedingly vigorous. It was re- 
garded as a vigorous strain of Neapolitan. It is 
stated further that the variety had been brought 
from abroad several years before by Lady Hume 
Campbell, and planted in her gardens at High- 
grove, Waltford. Soon after it was noticed at 
Lady Campbell's place by a Mr. Turner, who 
bought the stock and presumably put it on the 
market. It was imported in 1892 by Mr. H. 
Heubner, of Groton, Massachusetts, who obtained 



ORIGIN AND INTRODUCTION OF VARIETIES. 23 




2.— Type of double violet {Marie Louise), 1 educed one-third. 



24 



INTRODUCTION. 



his stock from Beachy, in Devonshire, England. 
Mr. Heubner informs the writer that he im- 
ported the so-called " De Parme" at the same 
time and he considers it to be in every way 
identical with Campbell. Parme de Toulouse 




3.— Characteristic growth of California (single) and 
Marie Louise (double) compared. 

and Parme sans Filet, both grown for a number 
of years in France and catalogued by Millet 
and others, seem to be the same as Campbell. 
It is probable, therefore, that the Campbell 



METHODS OF CULTURE. 



2 5 



originated on the continent of Europe, that it was 
brought to England about 1879 or 1880, and was 
imported into the United States in 1892 or possibly 
earlier. Be that as it may, the variety has made 
a place for itself, and is now, owing to its great 
vigor and productiveness, gradually taking the 
place of the Marie Louise. 

CULTURE PAST AND PRESENT. 
Of the early days of violet growing m this 
country, that is, the work as it was carried on up 
to fifteen years ago, little need be said. In most 
cases the methods employed were crude when 
looked at from the present point of view, just as 
our methods will, no doubt, be considered crude 
by those who follow us. The plants for the most 
part were grown in frames or in pots, under the 
mistaken idea that it was necessary to have them 
near, the glass. Even now, despite the rapid 
advances made in greenhouse construction, it is 
rare to find a modern violet establishment in the 
true sense of the word. Sash houses are still 
largely in vogue, and little resembling the com- 
pact, business-like structures used for carnations 
and roses are to be found. We have often been 
at a loss to account for this, except on the 
ground that the plant is really one which at 
times will do fairly well under seemingly very 
poor treatment, while again all the coaxing and 
luxurious surroundings imaginable cannot make 
it thrive. It is a truth well established that more 



26 INTRODUCTION. 

people go into violet growing and fail than is the 
case with the growing of any other crop under 
glass. Time and time again we have seen men 
start into the business with no experience and 
nothing but the poorest kind of equipment and 
succeed for the first two or three years in a truly 
remarkable way. Then trouble comes in one 
form or another and in two or three years more 
the grower has passed out of the field. It requires 
about five years to definitely determine what a 
man with ordinary facilities can do in this matter. 
Of course he will have his ups and downs and the 
temptation will be strong at times to give up the 
task and take up some other crop. Such moments 
are his worst, for if he sticks to his one problem 
and endeavors to profit by his experience he will 
in the end succeed. 

Coming back to the question of how violets 
are grown to-day, we find that those engaged in 
the work may be divided into two groups, (i) 
extensive or what may be called violet farmers, 
and (2) intensive or violet growers proper. Of 
course one will find numerous gradations, but for 
practical purposes they may be classed under 
the foregoing heads. Violet farming is often prac- 
ticed in more or less remote country districts^ 
where land and labor are cheap. Houses are 
seldom used for such work, but frames are re- 
sorted to, and the care of the plants is left to 
boys — sometimes colored, sometimes white — over- 



METHODS OF CULTURE. 27 

looked by the owner of the place or perhaps by a 
foreman or two. In a number of cases this 
method is practiced by women, and not without 
success. Of course there are numerous places 
where work of this kind could be carried on 
with a fair prospect of success. There are many 
farms seventy-five, one hundred, and even two 
hundred or three hundred miles from our large 
cities which with ordinary farm crops barely 
yield a living. In such cases a young or 
middle-aged person might take up this work 
and make it more profitable than the mere 
growing of farm crops. In all such cases, how- 
ever, it must be borne in mind that to succeed 
there must be work night and day perhaps for 
a time, and while it may never be the heavy, 
killing labor which farm work is often made to 
be, it is ceaseless, tiresome toil just the same. 
The intensive grower, on the other hand, should 
endeavor to locate within easy driving distance 
or shipping distance of his principal market; 
that is, he should if possible be located so that 
he can pick his flowers and have them in his 
dealer's hands within an hour or earlier if possible. 
It is the sweet, delicious fragrance that sells this 
flower and the moment it is picked it begins to 
lose this all -important thing. Therefore endeavor 
to locate so that you are in quick reach of your 
principal dealer, keeping constantly in mind the 
fact that your success depends largely on his sue- 



28 INTRODUCTION. 

cess. Proximity to market should be set down as 
the first requisite to success, but not the only one 
by any means. Character of the soil, and 
facilities for obtaining manure, water, and other 
necessities must be considered. These factors 
will all be described in detail under their proper 
heads. 

Last and most important of all, the man him- 
self must be considered, or if possible must con- 
sider himself. No man can learn to grow violets 
from reading books, nor can he expect to get this 
knowledge from watching others. He can get 
help and suggestions of course, but the problems 
themselves he must work out alone. There is no 
such thing as luck in growing this crop, although 
it often looks that way. A man succeeds because 
he has the necessary knowledge to take advantage 
of the little things and make the most of them. 
Another fails because he does not see or fails to 
realize the importance of the little hourly and 
we might almost say minutely occurring things 
which are necessary to make the plants. grow and 
thrive. It is not sufficient to be able to put on 
water, mix soil, to fire, or to feed and propagate the 
plants properly. The man may do all these accord- 
ing to the very best practices and yet his plants 
will never grow and bloom like those of the man 
who has the intuitive knowledge to realize the 
little needs and to make the cumulative effects of 
this knowledge felt in just the right way and at the 



METHODS OF CULTURE. < 2 g 

right time. All this is hard to put into words, and 
will not be understood at all by some readers, but 
it is seen everywhere, from the lady who grows 
only a few house plants, but always succeeds with 
them, to the grower with his acres of glass in which 
every plant seems to spring into vigorous growth 
so long as his watchful eye is upon them and his 
hand is present to guide and direct the various 
operations. 

The successful grower then is born, not 
made, for it is not a question of mechanics, but 
rione of brains, and therefore, if there is not an 
inherent love for plants — that feeling of sympathy 
between them and you — some other work would 
better be undertaken. With love for the work 
and appreciation of every need of the plants, 
success will in the end result even though many 
difficulties in the way of surroundings must be 
overcome. To conclude, the whole gist of this 
argument is that surroundings, of course, count 
for considerable in such work, but more than all 
the rest success depends on the man himself, or 
rather on what he has in him. The man who truly 
succeeds in this work will succeed in almost any 
business, for all success really traces back to one 
thing, namely, ability to see, to grasp, and to 
utilize little things to the best advantage. Look 
after these and the big ones will look out for 
themselves. 



30 SOIL. 



CHAPTER II. 



THE SOIL. 

The soil forms the basis for all work in plant 
growth and it is proper therefore that it should be 
discussed first. Violets will grow on almost any 
soil, but to obtain the best results it is necessary 
to pay attention to certain important characters of 
the soil, particularly those relating to its physical 
properties. The importance of the relation of the 
physical properties of the soil, that is, texture, 
temperature, and moisture, to plant growth is not 
fully appreciated. By texture is meant the 
character of the particles which make up the soil, 
while structure has to do with the arrangement of 
these particles and their relation to each other. 
The particles, or grains, of which soils are com- 
posed vary greatly in size, and to distinguish them 
they have received certain conventional names, 
such as clay, fine silt, silt, fine sand, sand, etc. 
The clay particles are extremely minute, silt grains 
are larger, and so on until we have coarse sand or 
gravel, with grains Y25 to H2 of an inch in diameter. 
Upon the amounts of the various constituents, 
i. e., clay, fine silt, silt, fine sand, etc., depends 
the porosity of the soil, the readiness with which 



TEXTURE. 31 

the air penetrates it and water moves through 
it, its water-holding capacity, and finally its 
temperature.* 

By varying the texture of the soil its water 
content is varied, its capacity for heat is modified, 
and so on until every important factor, including 
food, in the ordinary acceptance of the word, is 
involved. To these variations the plant adapts 
itself, and the result may be extensive leaf develop- 
ment with few or no flowers or vice versa, a weak- 
ened condition of the tissues (making the plant 
subject to the attacks of enemies, especially fungi), 
and so on through a list of other possibilities. To 
illustrate more fully, we may say that in our 
experience the Lady Hume Campbell violet seems 
to thrive best on relatively light soil, that is, a 
soil which contains a comparatively small amount 
of clay. The Marie Louise, on the other hand, 
does best with more clay, or in other words a 
heavier soil. The violet soils of the Poughkeepsie 
region contain from eight to fifteen per cent of 
clay, and it is here that the highest success is 
attained with this particular variety. In parts of 
Maryland and Virginia where the Campbell violet 
is grown extensively, the soils frequently contain 
six to eight per cent of clay, so that it will be seen 
that there is considerable difference as regards the 
structure of the two classes of soils. It follows, 



♦Galloway, B. T., Yearbook of the Department of Agriculture for 
1895, p. 250. 



32 SOIL. 

of course, that where soils showing so much differ- 
ence in structure are used the plants in each case 
have different sets of factors to which they must 
adapt themselves, and in doing this they may be so 
modified as to materially affect the development of 
the flowers. 

Soils of both the heavy and moderately heavy 
types are found in many places and if they do not 
occur naturally the desired effects may be approxi- 
mated by combinations of light and heavy soils. 
We have never found it satisfactory to lighten 
heavy soil by mixing in sand alone. This takes 
away the life of the soil and plants never succeed 
so well in it as when the desired conditions are 
produced by mixing a heavy and a light soil. For 
example, we may have in one part of a field a soil 
containing fifteen to twenty per cent of clay and 
in another one containing four or five per cent. 
By mixing these two soils in equal proportion a 
combination is effected which, other conditions 
being equal, will prove better for violets than 
either soil used alone. 

Of course it must be remembered that the 
conditions for plants under glass are different 
from those out-of-doors. Outside the plant has 
to take what it can get in the w&y of water, air, 
and other important conditions fAr growth, while 
inside these are in a measure macle to order by the 
grower himself. It follows, therefore, that even 
where the soil is not what it should be the grower 



STRUCTURE. 33 

has it within his power, to a large extent, to over- 
come the difficulties by a proper manipulation of 
the surroundings. 

This question of the structure of the soil and 
its relation to plant growth is a rather difficult one 
to explain in words. The practical grower learns 
by experience how to judge a soil largely by its 
appearance and its "feel" when taken in the hand. 
The facts given in regard to the effects of struc- 
ture of soil on plant growth, therefore, help a 
novice by acquainting him with matters he ought 
to know, but they will not show him what he can 
do, for experience alone can teach him this. Any 
soil that will grow a good crop of potatoes will, 
with proper manuring, grow good violets. This 
means that the soil should be a moderately heavy 
loam, that it should not pack or puddle readily, 
and that it should contain plenty of fibrous 
material, which can be obtained by using good 
turf or sod. 

We prefer in all cases to use good sod or turf, 
cutting this not more than three or four inches 
thick. Where land is plentiful, that is, where the 
grower has several acres at his disposal, it will be 
best to keep part of it constantly in grass. Blue 
grass, white clover, and redtop make a good mix- 
ture. For every bushel of blue grass seed use 
one quart of white clover and one-third bushel of 
redtop. Coarse grasses, like orchard grass and 
timothy, should be avoided, as the stems and heavy 



34 S0IL - 

roots are sources of annoyance in handling the 
soil. Where one has land that can be spared he 
should allow for every thousand plants not less 
than one-twentieth of an acre in grass upon which 
he can depend for soil. The soil after being used 
can be hauled out and after being spread on the 
ground be reseeded and in six or eight years 
will propably be as good as new. In the majority 
of cases it is necessary to purchase the soil and this 
is usually done through contractors and sometimes 
from farmers who have the sod to spare. It is 
customary to pay from seventy-five cents to one 
dollar per cubic yard for good sod cut three or four 
inches thick and delivered on the place. A cubic 
yard contains twenty -seven cubic feet, that is, a pile 
one foot high, three feet wide, and nine feet long. 
More often the soil is bought merely by the ' 'load, " 
a load being usually about a yard — sometimes a 
little more, sometimes less. Seventy-five cents to 
one dollar per load is the price usually paid for soil. 
Some prefer to stack the soil, that is, to cut it 
and pile it in a heap in the early fall, but this is not 
always practicable, hence very often the work is 
left till spring. On the whole we can see no 
advantage in the early fall stacking unless it can be 
done during a time when work is not pressing. 
Where practicable our preference is to cut the sod 
in the fall and allow it to stand in the field unpiled 
until it has been frozen hard three or four times. 
In this way grubs, nematodes, and the larvae of 



HANDLING. 35 

many insects are killed, and at the same time 
benefit is derived from the effects of the frost on 
the mechanical and chemical condition of the soil. 
Before hard winter weather sets in the soil should 
be either hauled close to the greenhouses and 
piled or else made into a heap where it stands. In 
sections where the soil is not from limestone 
formation, fresh slacked lime should be added to 
it when it is being put into the heap or direct- 
ly after cutting. Lime should be added at the rate 
of about two-thirds of a bushel for each one thou- 
sand square feet cut. In stacking the soil we pre- 
fer to make a heap about four feet high, twenty to 
twenty-five feet wide, and of any length desired. 
At this time the manure, which should have been 
previously procured and put into good condition, 
is to be added to the soil. Asa rule one part of 
manure to four parts of soil will make a combina- 
tion sufficiently rich for any purpose. This is 
assuming, of course, that the manure is well rotted 
and free from light chaff and straw. Well-rotted 
•cow manure is preferable if it can be obtained, but 
if not, well-rotted and carefully handled horse 
manure will answer equally as well. Avoid all 
experimenting with chemical fert ilizers. 
They are well enough in their place, and in the 
hands of one who has had experience no harm will 
result from the use of a little pure, ground, u n d i s- 
solved bone, but it must be pure and applied at 
the rate of not more than one-half bushel for each 



36 



SOIL. 



one thousand plants. The bone should be mixed 
with the soil when the heap is being made. When 
a cart and horse are at hand we prefer to use them 




4. — Mixing soil. Spreading- manure in layers between 
the soil. 

in making the heap. Four loads of soil, each a 
cubic yard, are hauled and spread, and then a load 
of manure is added and spread over the soil. This 



MIXING. 



37 



is continued until the first layer of the heap is of 
the desired width and length, when a second layer 
is formed in the same way. After finishing each 




5. — Mixing soil. Breaking and pulverizing the sod pre- 
paratory to putting- it down with layers of manure. 

layer the bone meal may be sown thinly over the 
surface. Put it on about as thick as is done in sand- 
ing or sawdusting a floor. Working in this way, 



38 SOIL. 

two active men can put into a heap forty to fifty 
yards of soil a day, or a sufficient quantity for four 
thousand to five thousand plants, figuring that the 
beds contain six inches of fresh made soil and that 
the manure and turf are one hundred to two hun- 
dred feet apart. It is seen, therefore, that each 
cubic yard of the mixture is sufficient for one hun- 
dred plants, allowing a depth of six inches for the 
beds. 

When soil is purchased, or even when it is 
obtained from one's own place, it is never exactly 
alike any two years. For this reason it is a good 
plan to experiment a little before the general 
mixing is commenced. It takes very little time 
to make up several lots of soil in different pro- 
portions, using a water pail to make the measure- 
ments. For instance, we have soil from two local- 
ities, one of which is moderately heavy and the other 
light, and also well rotted manure which we make 
up in the following combinations: 

(1) Light soil, one part. 
Heavy soil, three parts. 
Manure, one part. 

(2) Light soil, two parts. 
Heavy soil, two parts. 
Manure, one part. 

(3) Light soil, two parts. 
Heavy soil, three parts. 
Manure, one part. 

(4) Heavy soil, four parts. 
Manure, one part. 



MIXING. 39 

By using- a pail, only small quantities of soil and 
manure are needed, but there will be sufficient 
material in each case after a thorough mixing to 
tell what the combinations look and feel like. It 
is always best to allow the heaps to stand a week 
or two for they often change their texture on 
standing - , especially when lime is used. With a 
little practice one can soon determine in his own 
mind what combinations suit him best, and then he 
will at least have a rational basis to work upon. 
Right here we may utter a word of warning 
against the growing practice of allowing the ex- 
perimenting mania to get the better of judg- 
ment. Some individuals are over-inquiring, and 
for this reason the temptation is to experiment 
continually, with the result that nothing succeeds, 
for the simple reason that one thing is not tried 
long enough to find out its real value. We 
find a grower trying first this, then that ferti- 
lizer or method, with the result that by and 
by he gives up in disgust and says that his 
soil or his section is not suited to the crop he 
is attempting to grow. If he could only be 
brought to a realization of the fact that the trouble 
is not wholly in the soil or surroundings, but is 
partly in himself, he would soon be on the road to 
success. We have known men to spend years of 
work in experimenting one way or another, and at 
the end of that time they would be little wiser 
than when they commenced. All this time the 



40 SOIL. 

plants have been doctored with insecticides and 
fungicides, fed on many kinds of food, and in short 
made to run the whole gamut of crank and quack 
notions advertised from time to time. What is 
needed here is a mind cure for the individual and 
less doctoring for the plants. Experiment, of 
course, but do not be led away by it, and do not 
allow every new idea or suggestion to take you 
from the main purpose or to bias your judgment. 
To return from our digression, the soil when 
heaped should be protected by rough boards or by 
some other means from rains. Much benefit will 
result if the soil is turned two or three times before 
it is taken into the houses. Many omit this, but 
we are convinced that it pays to turn it as this 
improves its condition in many ways. The cost 
will not exceed fifty cents per thousand plants for 
each turning. Reference has been made to the 
quantity of soil used, but it is desirable to enter 
somewhat into detail upon this point. We aim to 
put in six inches of fresh soil each year. 
Plants may do well on less or even on the soil 
that has been used once, but the grower who is 
in the business for all there is to be made out of 
it, can not afford to run any risks, hence he should 
calculate on not less than six inches of new soil 
each year. To determine then how much soil is 
necessary, merely multiply the length of each bed 
in feet and inches by the width, and multiply this by 
one-half. This will give the number of cubic feet, 



AMOUNT TO USE. 41 

and as there are twenty-seven cubic feet in a cubic 
yard, the number of cubic feet divided by twenty- 
seven will give the number of cubic yards. For ex- 
ample, it has been our practice to have our beds 
numbered (these numbers are held constant from 
year to year) as follows : 

Bed No. 1. 75 x 6 feet=45o square feet x y 2 foot=225 

cubic feet, or practically 8 cubic yards. 
Bed No. 2. 125 x 5 feet =625 square feet x y 2 foot =312 

cubic feet-J- 27 ==11.4 yards. 

All the beds being numbered in this way it is 
an easy matter to tell just how much soil will 
be needed. Of course in considering the bulk as 
a whole the manure must be counted in, that is, 
if a total of one hundred yards of prepared soil is 
needed the manure will form one-fourth of this, or 
twenty-five yards. It will be necessary therefore 
to purchase seventy-five yards of soil proper and 
twenty-five yards of manure for the mixture. The 
cost of manure will of course depend on many cir- 
cumstances, but in the vicinity of cities it can seldom 
be bought for less than seventy-five cents a cubic 
yard, or about two dollars and a half for a two- 
horse wagon load. 

The foregoing statements in regard to soil, 
mixing, etc., are based upon the supposition 
that the grower is near a city, where land is 
high, and that his work is on an intensive 
plan, and further, that the plants are grown 
where they are to stand and not planted in 
the field and then moved in. No man who is 



42 SOIL. 

in the business to compete with the best 
growers can afford to run the risk of 
growing his plants in the field and mov- 
ing them into houses. From the time the 
cutting is made until the old plant is thrown away 
the work is or should be entirely under glass. 
Where violet farming is practiced, i. e., where 
land is plentiful and the crop is grown in frames, 
it is customary in some sections to merely plow up 
a fresh piece of sod each year or every two or 
three years and move the frames. We do not 
recommend this practice and believe that it 
pays to bring the soil into heaps and mix it as 
described even if it is to be used in frames. The 
more the soil is handled the better, providing 
of course the work is not done when there is too 
much moisture present. Never allow a shovel to 
touch the soil when the latter is wet, for irrepa- 
rable injury can be done at such a time. Wait 
until the soil is mealy and never touch it when 
it is pasty and putty-like to the touch. It must 
be remembered that the soil is not a dead, 
inert mass, but is an exceedingly complicated 
material — an active working laboratory, teeming 
with life and performing functions which we 
as yet but little understand. Fortunate is the 
man who knows enough to appreciate this fact and 
to let the soil alone when by so doing its wonder- 
ful- mechanism is brought into play for the best 
use of the plants it sustains. 



HOUSES. 



43 



CHAPTER III 



CONSTRUCTION OF HOUSES AND FRAMES. 
CONSTRUCTION OF HOUSES. 
Probably more makeshifts in the way of 
houses for growing violets have been used in this 
country than for any other crop. The evolution 
of this part of the work has been exceptionally 
slow, so that it is difficult to find at this time a 
thoroughly modern establishment in every way. 
Ordinary cold frames were first used; then in 
order to get at the plants in bad weather a pit 
was made so as to obtain head room and still 
utilize the sash and keep the plants near the glass. 
Gradually growers began to get their plants above 
ground and to increase the amount of head room 
and air space by raising the sash above the beds. 
Many houses are still made on this plan, while a 
comparatively few are built with stationary sash 
bars and permanent glass roof. There are no 
special advantages in making a house of sash, 
except in certain cases, which will be mentioned 
later. Such houses cannot be made wind or 
water-tight, and as a rule are so full of wood as to 
be unnecessarily dark. When it was considered 
necessary to take the glass off in summer, sashes, 



44 



CONSTRUCTION. 



■.-■— — : — ST - — : — — 

; ■■.:■■■ : . 



HOUSES. 



45 



of course, were an important item, for they could 
easily be removed and stored until wanted in the 
fall. If one intends to make a permanent house 
we by all means recommend the fixed roof, with 




7.— House twelve feet wide, six feet to ridge; side venti- 
lators of glass. This is one of a block of five houses, 
each seventy-five feet long. 

ventilators and other necessary adjuncts arranged 
as we shall now proceed to describe. 



4 6 



CONSTRUCTION. 




houses. 47 

All things considered, our preference is for 
even span houses running north and south. The 
violet does not thrive well under glaring sunlight. 
It needs light, but this should be softened and 
diffused in order to insure the best results in the 
growth and the size and color of the flowers. 
The three-quarter span house facing south is apt 
to be too bright, and if heavy shading is resorted 
to it is effective in- bright weather but makes it 
too dark when cloudy. Economy in space and 
economy in building, furthermore, can be attained 
by adopting the even span north and south style of 
house. In our work we have made it a point 
to keep a careful record of not only the flowers 
from each kind of house, but from each bed in a 
house. These records, kept from year to year, 
furnish interesting information and enable one 
who is looking to every detail to make changes 
that will result to his advantage. The three- 
quarter span house facing south in our case never 
gave as many flowers per square foot of bed space 
by twenty to twenty-five per cent as the even 
span houses running north and south. 

When capital and space are limited we know 
of no better style of Jiouse than a narrow, plain, 
even span, built on the ridge and furrow plan ; and 
running north and south. The length may be 
from seventy-five to one hundred and fifty feet. 

Our preference is for houses one hundred feet 
long, twelve feet wide, seven feet to the ridge 



CONSTRUCTION. 




HOUSES. 



49 



from the bottom of the walk, and two feet eight 
inches high on the sides above ground level (see 
figure 8). Where the amount of ground is limited 
these houses may be built together — two, three, 




10.— Shed at north end of houses, shovsing method of 
construction. Shed has glass roof. 

five, or seven, as the case may be — without inter- 
vening walls. At the north end of the houses and 
running the entire length across the ends there 
should be a lean-to shed eight feet wide and 



5° 



CONSTRUCTION. 



provided with glass roof sloping to the north. 
Against the north wall may be placed a propa- 
gating bed three and one-half feet wide, leaving 
four and one-half feet clear space for a walk 
and entrance to each house. If more than six 




11.— Interior of shed shown in 10. Propagating bench on 

the right, supply pipes (two inch) on the 

left, shed eight ieet wide. 

houses are in the block, the boiler should be 
placed near the center in a pit dug beneath the 
shed. If necessary, of course, the entire space 
beneath the shed may be devoted to coal, a work- 



HOUSES. 



51 



shop, and perhaps a place for tools. If the number 
of houses are three or less, the boiler may be 
placed at one end of the shed in a pit, as already 
described. The end selected should depend upon 




12— Roofs of twelve foot houses, showing- method of con- 
struction and of attaching- ventilators ; one row 
of glass between the ventilators. 

the general slope of the land, the object being 
to get the boiler at the lowest point. Following is 



52 CONSTRUCTION. 

a detailed statement in regard to the points to 
consider in this type of house : 

Length, one hundred feet, with one foot fall to carry off 
water. 

Inside width, twelve feet. 

Height to ridge from bottom of walk, seven feet. 

Height of side from top of plate to bottom of gutter, twenty- 
inches (see figure 24). 

Walls below plates to be boarded up with rough lumber 
first, then covered with rustic siding (see figure 24). 

Number of walks, one in each house, placed in the center. 

Width of walk, fourteen inches. 

Depth of walk, twelve inches. 

Number of beds, two. 

Width of each bed, five feet five inches. 

Depth of beds, twelve inches. 

Posts in outside walls, four by four inches sawed cedar, 
chestnut, or locust, set four feet apart center to 
center, and two and one-half feet in the ground. 

Posts in inside walls, four by four inches, set eight feet 
apart center to center, and two and one-half feet in 
the ground. 

Gutters, three piece, six inches in the clear, made of two 
inch clear cypress (see figure 18). 

Wall plates, two by eight inch clear cypress, to be notched 
around posts. 

Gable plates for end of each house, two by eight inch 
clear cypress. 

Gable rafters, one and three-quarters by two and one- 
quarter inch clear cypress. 

Sash bars clear cypress, one and one-quarter by two 
and one-half inches, with drip groove, all bars to ex- 
tend from gutter to ridge. 

Rafters, two by four inch, clear cypress, to be set every 
sixteen feet. Rafters to take place of sash bar. 

Ridge (with ridge cap), two by six inches. 

Top ventilators, two by four feet, or made to cover three 
rows of glass set fifteen inches, including sash bars. 
One row of glass to be left between the ventilators. 



houses. 53 

Headers to be placed under ventilator. 

Ventilators on side, two by four feet, continuous, and to 
lap on post one-half. 

Glass ten by fifteen inches, double thick, second quality, 
lapped and bedded in putty. Glass set fifteen inch 
way. 

South ends of houses glass, with exception of door, which 
should be four feet wide so as to admit a wheelbarrow 
readily. 

North ends of houses opening into shed to be made of 
tongue and groove pine, with doors the same size 
as those on south end. 

Walls of shed to be made of rustic siding nailed to two by 
four studs set eighteen inches apart. Inside of shed 
to be lined with tongue and groove yellow pine. 

Wall plate of shed, two by six yellow pine. 

Top plate of shed, same as wall plate. 

Doors in north wall of shed, four feet wide, opening 
opposite doors in north end of houses. 

Posts for sides of beds, two by four hemlock, set four 
feet apart, and wired to opposite posts or to stakes to 
prevent spreading. Set wires ten inches below top of 
bed. 

Sides of beds, one by twelve inch hemlock boards nailed to 
outside of the two by four posts. 

Heating pipes, black wrought iron screw joints, two 
one and one-half inch flows for each house and ten 
one and one-quarter inch returns (five on each side of 
house). Pipes run so that the highest point, includ- 
ing expansion tank, is directly over the boiler. 

Flow and returns in all houses to have the same fall, i. e., 
about one inch for every ten feet of pipe. 

To feed five houses of the size here given (twelve by one 
hundred feet), it will be necessary to run out two two 
and one-half inch pipes from the boiler, allowing one 
pipe to feed the two houses on the west and one to 
feed the three on the east. The west is given the ad- 
vantage on account of the greater exposure. 

Top ventilators operated by plain lifting rods with holes 
and pins to give a four to sixteen inch opening. 



54 



CONSTRUCTION. 



The accompanying illustrations will make 
plain the points mentioned. 

The second type of house, which will require 




13. — A twelve foot house, showing- method of constructing 
and attaching side ventilators. 

more ground and capital, is also even span, running 
north and south, but with a space of eight feet 



houses. 55 

between the houses. Following are the principal 
features of this style of house: 

Length of house, one hundred feet, with one foot fall to 

carry off water. 
Width of shed at north end, ten feet. 
Width of house inside, twenty-four feet. 
Height of walls from top of plate to bottom of gutter, 

twenty inches. Plate to be twelve inches above 

grade (see figure 24). 
Walls below plate to be boarded up with rough lumber 

and then covered with rustic siding (see figure 24). 
Height of house inside from top of center bed to bottom of 

ridge, nine feet. 
Number of walks, two. 
Width of walks each, fourteen inches. 
Number of beds, three. 
Width of center bed, ten feet ten inches. 
Width of side beds each, five feet five inches. 
Depth of beds, twelve inches. 
Posts in side walls, sawed cedar, chestnut, or locust, four 

by four inches, set four feet apart center to center and 

two and one-half feet in the ground. 
Gutters, three piece cypress, six inches in the clear (see 

figure 18). 
Plates, two by eight inches, clear cypress, cut to fit around 

posts and to receive bottom of ventilator. 
Gable plates at ends of house, two by eight inches clear 

cypress. 
Gable rafters, one and three-quarters by two and one- 
quarter inches clear cypress. 
Purlins, one inch black pipe, run under each slope five feet 

nine inches from ridge. 
Supports for purlins, one inch pipe, long enough to extend 

through bed and into cement block in the ground. 
Support for ridge, one and one-quarter inch black pipe, 

placed eight feet apart and set the same as supports 

under purlins. 
Iron posts, to be attached to purlins by T's one and one- 
quarter inch through, so as to slip over purlin pipe, 

with one inch side to take support. 



56 CONSTRUCTION. 

Sash bars, clear cypress, one and one-quarter by two and 
one-half inches, with drip groove, all bars to extend 
from gutter to ridge. 

Rafters, none. 

Ridge, clear cypress, two by six inches, with ridge cap. 

Top ventilators on both sides, each ventilator two by four 
feet, or long enough to cover three sash bars and 
glass, leaving one row of glass between each two 
ventilators, headers under ventilators. 

Ventilators on sides; two by four feet, continuous, and 
made to lap on posts. 

Ventilator-raising apparatus for top and sides consisting 
of geared wheels, shafts, arms, and rods. 

Glass, ten by fifteen inches, double thick, second quality, 
lapped, and bedded in putty. 

Posts for supporting sides of beds, two by four inch hem- 
lock, set four feet apart and wired to opposite posts 
to prevent bed from spreading. 

Sides of beds, one inch hemlock or cypress, nailed to out- 
side of posts. 

Heating pipes, black wrought iron and screw joint, being 
run so that the highest point is directly over the 
boiler. 

Flow pipe, two and one-half inches, to be carried directly 
under the ridge and to fall to south end about one 
inch in every ten feet. 

Returns, twelve one and one-half inch pipe, to fall one 
inch in ten feet from south to north end, two pipes to 
be carried over center bed and five along each wall. 
This will give sufficient radiating surface to maintain 
with hot water an inside temperature of fifty degrees 
F. with an outside temperature at zero and no wind 
blowing. Plugged openings should be left for at 
least four additional returns so as to be on the safe 
side. This can be done with very little additional 
expense and may be worth a good many dollars at 
some future time. 

As many houses as may be desired can be built after this 
plan, all connecting at the north end with the shed 
having a slope running to the north, the same as 



HEATING. 



57 



described for the first style of house. It is best to 
leave at least eight feet between each two houses to 
faclitate ventilation, the taking out of plants and 
soil, clearing off the snow from the roofs, and other 
necessary work. 

So much for the main points involved in the 

construction of the two principal styles of houses. 

In the matter of heating we have considered only 

hot water, as we believe it has advantages over 

steam in growing violets. A proper boiler is of 




14. — Fastening pipes to 
posts by tin clips. 



15.— Fastening- pipes to posts 
by bent wire nails. 



the utmost importance — so important in fact that 
the most careful consideration should be given to 
its selection. Notwithstanding all that 
has been written on heating it is a 
fact that nearly every man who goes 
into greenhouse work is dissatis- 



5« 



CONSTRUCTION. 



fied until he has spent a good deal 
of money and time in experimenting 
on this feature. Experience obtained in this 
way is sometimes dearly bought and it pays 




16. — Interior of twelve foot house, showing- method of 
constructing 1 south end and door. 

better to take the advice of others who have 
gone over the same ground and have reached 
conclusions that will apply to your case. 



HEATING. 



59 



Boiler makers, under the stimulus of competi- 
tion, have, in many cases, wandered away from 
the simple principles that must be considered 
in making - an economical, efficient apparatus. In 




17. — Interior of house, showing method of connecting 
Sow pipe with four returns. 

our experience with boilers we have never found 
any that would fill all requirements so nearly as 
one of simple construction, giving- the largest 



6o 



CONSTRUCTION. 




HEATING. 



6l 



possible amount of direct heating surface, and 
offering the least resistance to the movement of 
the water, and a fire box deep and big enough to 
carry a large amount of fuel at slow combustion. 




19.- 



-Interior construction. Method of connecting returns 
at north end of house. 



There is no economy in curtailing the size of 
the fire box and adding sections, which at best can 
only receive the hot gases. In order to get the 



62 



CONSTRUCTION. 




HEATING. 63 

full service out of such a boiler it will be necessary 
to carry a hot fire, and as a result a large per cent 
of the heat goes up the chimney. Boilers, there- 
fore, should be selected with due regard to (1) the 
amount of direct heating surface, (2) perpendic- 
ular circulation of the water in the boiler, (3) the 
capacity for fuel, and (4) conveniences in the mat- 
ter of suitable grates, drafts, and doors. Most 
boilers are rated on the number of square feet of 
pipe they will heat. As a rule, at least twenty- 
five per cent margin should be allowed on these 
figures in order to be on the safe side. For 
example, if a boiler is rated, to heat one thousand 
square feet of pipe it should not have more than 
seven hundred or seven hundred and fifty feet 
put upon it. It may heat the thousand feet 
at a pinch, but the grower wants it to 
heat the pipe at all times with a slow 
fire that will stand without attention 
at least six or seven hours. 

The saddle, conical, and locomotive types of 
boilers are probably as efficient as any we now 
have, and by taking any one of these and fitting 
it up with the modern improvements in the way 
of deep fire box, grates, ash-pit, door and flue 
drafts, and dampers, it would, in all probability, 
do the work more economically and efficiently 
than a large number of the intricate forms now on 
the market. There is the keenest competition 
among boiler makers, and as a rule, they are to be 



6 4 



CONSTRUCTION. 




HEATING. 



65 



commended for the great energy they show in 
endeavoring to adapt their apparatus to the 
demands of the trade. Prices are so close that 
every additional ounce of iron counts, and for this 
reason it would seem to be the part of wisdom to 




22, 



■House twenty-four feet wide; posts set and shed at 
north end built first. 



simplify construction as much as possible. It is 
a matter of theoretical calculation to determine 
what each section will do when added to a boiler. 
In practice, however, it is frequently found that 



66 



CONSTRUCTION. 



each section beyond reach of direct fire contact 
utterly fails to do what in theory it ought to 
accomplish. Good boilers made by responsible 
firms are within the reach of all nowadays and it 




23. — Constructing house twenty -four feet wide 
step, making beds and walks. 



second 



hardly pays, therefore, to attempt to make them 
out of coils of pipe. By the time the pipe is pur- 
chased, put together, and bricked up, and the 
doors, grates, drafts, and other necessary con- 



COST OF BOILER 



6 7 



veniences obtained, the cost is nearly as great 
as when a first-class boiler, ready to set tip and 
start off, is purchased. 

As to the cost of boilers, it may be said that for 




24.— Constructing house twenty-four feet wide; third step, 
running- gutters and notching plate around posts. 

every five hundred square feet of pipe it will cost 
seventy-five dollars for boiler capacity to heat it, 
or fifteen dollars for every hundred square 
feet of heatine surface. Therefore to heat a 



68 CONSTRUCTION. 

house such as described, namely, twelve by one 
hundred feet and seven feet to ridge, the boiler 
would cost seventy five dollars. For each addi- 
tional house of the same length joined to the next 
without partition walls, an additional fifty dollars 
should be added for boiler capacity. To heat a 
house one hundred feet long and twenty-four feet 
wide, such as described as the second type, would 
require a boiler costing one hundred and twenty- 
five dollars. For each additional house separated 
from the other by an alley of eight feetj it would 
require seventy-five dollars additional for boiler 
capacity. When the amount of pipe to heat 
exceeds twenty-five hundred square feet it is best 
to have more than one boiler — in fact it is a 
question whether it is not best in all cases to have 
boilers so arranged that there is a reserve on hand 
for emergencies, which may arise at any time. It 
is also a question as to whether it would not pay to 
have a night fireman in all cases where the number 
of plants exceeds ten thousand. 

This brings us to a consideration of the total 
cost of the types of houses described. Taking one 
hundred feet as the length, a house twelve feet 
wide and seven feet to the ridge, with a twenty 
inch opening on sides, would cost as follows : 

40 posts for side walls, 4x4 inches, 6 or 7 feet 

long, at 35 cents each $14 00 

205 lineal feet 3-piece gutter, 6 inches in clear, at 

#16.20 per 100 feet 33 21 



COST OF HOUSES. 69 

1200 lineal feet of sash bars, 1^x2%' inches, in 14 

foot lengths, at #1.50 per 100 feet $18 00 

225 lineal feet 2x8 inch wall plate for sides 

and ends, at $7-20 per 100 feet 16 20 

96 lineal feet 2x4 inch rafters, 14 foot lengths, at 

$4.00 per 100 feet 3 84 

64 lineal feet of gable rafters, i%x 2.%, at $2.36 per 

100 feet 1 51 

it2 lineal feet of 2x6 inch ridge, at #5.40 per 100 

feet 6 05 

100 lineal feet of ridge cap, 1^x3^, at #2.20 per 

100 feet 2 20 

20 top ventilators, each 2x4 feet, at 40 cents each 

(5 cents per square foot) 8 00 

75 lineal feet of headers for ventilators, at 4 cents 

per foot 3 40 

50 side ventilators, 2x4 feet, at 40 cents each .... 20 00 
52 hemlock posts 2 x 4 inches, for sides of beds, 

each post 3 feet long, at 4 cents each 2 08 

200 lineal feet hemlock boards, 12x1 inch, at S1.60 

per 100 feet, for sides of beds 3 20 

600 board feet rough hemlock for walls below 

plate, at Si. 50 per 100 9 00 

300 board feet rustic siding, at $1.40 per 100 4 20 

140 pairs 3 inch strap hinges for ventilators, with 

screws, at 5 cents each 7 00 

20 plain lifting rods for top ventilators, with 
plate, staple, and pin, each rod 16 inches 
long, made of % incn strap iron, at 6 cents 

each. 1 20 

50 ventilator fasteners for side ventilators, at 8 

cents each 4 00 

1100 feet of 1% inch wrought iron heating pipe, ±0 

returns, at 6 cents a foot 66 00 

225 feet t.% inch pipe for flows, at 8 cents a foot.. 18 00 
4 manifolds, five 1% inch openings on side and 
one iK inch opening at each end, at 65 cents 

each ... 2 60 

2 1% inch long screws, at 30 cents each 60 

101^ inch long screws, at 25 cents each 2 50 

Fittings 4 00 



70 CONSTRUCTION. 

i hot water boiler, complete and set ready for 
connection, including 8 inch chimney of terra 

cotta pipe $75 oo 

50 feet tongue and groove yellow pine for two 

doors, at $2.00 per 100 feet 1 00 

Shed at north end of house to cover boiler 
pit, 12 feet long, 8 feet wide, 8 feet high in 
front, 6 feet at back, with one door and 

boiler pit, complete 40 00 

100 pounds of white lead, at 5 cents per pound.... 5 00 
5 gallons of linseed oil, with drier, at 65 cents 

per gallon 3 25 

100 pounds of putty, at 3 cents per pound 3 00 

Nails and hardware 4 00 

30 boxes 10x15 glass, double thick, second 

quality, at $2.25 per box 67 50 

8 boxes 14x16 glass for ventilators, at $2.75 

per box 22 00 

Water pipes, including 1 inch main and % inch 

branches for spigots 12 00 

' Labor, including all carpenter work, painting, 

pipe fitting, setting boiler, etc.... 125 00 

Freight, etc 5° 00 

Total $658 54 

In reference to labor, it may be said that it 
is necessarily one of the most difficult things to 
estimate. The house can be put up complete by 
•one man with a laborer as a helper in twenty- 
five days or less. This would reduce the cost of 
labor to less than one hundred dollars. The 
amount estimated therefore is over rather than 
under what the actual cost ought to be. 

The cost of the second type of house — one 
hundred by twenty- four feet — is as follows : 

52 posts, 4x4 inches, 6 or 7 feet long, at 35 

cents each #18 20 



COST OF HOUSES. 7 1 

205 lineal feet of gutter, at #16.20 per 100 feet $33 21 

650 board feet rough hemlock for sides and ends 

below plates, at Si. 50 per 100 feet 9 75 

300 board feet rustic siding, at $1.40 per 100 feet.. 4 20 
2400 lineal feet of sash bars in 14 foot lengths, at 

$1.50 per 100 feet 36 00 

225 lineal feet, 2x8 inch wall plate, at $7.20 per 

100 feet 16 20 

54 lineal feet of gable rafters, at 2^ cents per foot 1 24 

112 feet 2x6 ridge, at $5.40 per 100 feet 6 05 

40 top ventilators, each 2x4 feet, at 40 cents 

each 16 00 

50 side ventilators, each 2x4 feet, at 40 cents 

each 20 00 

150 feet headers for top ventilators, at 4 cents 

per foot 6 00 

600 board feet hemlock boards for sides of beds, 

at $1.60 per 100 feet 9 60 

200 2x4 inch hemlock posts for sides of beds, at 

5 cents each 10 00 

90 pairs of hinges, with screws, for ventilators, 

at 5 cents per pair with screws 4 50 

Ventilating machinery, complete 100 00 

1400 feet \% inch heating pipe, at 8 cents per foot.. 112 00 

125 feet 2% inch heating pipe, at 15 cents per foot 18 75 

4 manifolds, \% inch all round, at 75 cents each 3 00 

Long screws and other fittings 15 00 

400 feet of 1 inch pipe for purlins and purlin sup- 
ports, at 5 cents per foot 20 oo 

150 feet z% inch pipe for ridge supports, at 6 

cents per foot 9 °° 

Fittings, including T's, for purlins and sup- 
ports 12 00 

1 boiler, complete and set, including 12 inch 

iron or terra cotta chimney 150 00 

2 doors, at $2.00 each 4 00 

Shed at north end of house, 10 feet wide, with 

glass roof as already described, including 

boiler pit boarded up 100 00 

300 pounds of white lead, at 5 cents per pound.... 15 00 



72 CONSTRUCTION. 

10 gallons linseed oil, with drier, at 65 cents per 

gallon.... .* 6 50 

200 pounds of putty, at 3 cents per pound 6 00 

Nails and hardware 15 00 

60 boxes 10x15 glass, at $2.25 per box "135 00 

10 boxes 14x16 glass for ventilators, at $2.75 

per box 27 50 

Water pipes, including two 1 inch mains and 

% inch laterals, with spigots 25 00 

Labor for carpenter work, painting, and pipe 

fitting, complete 250 00 

Freight, etc 75 00 

Total $1289 70 




25. — Construction. Putting up the root. 
We have already referred to houses made of 



SASH HOUSES. 73 

sash. For certain purposes houses of this kind 
will be found very useful, and it is important, 
therefore, to have sash on hand. Sash houses 
can be erected quickly and can be taken down 
when necessary and the sash themselves stored. 
A sash house is particularly valuable for winter- 
ing cuttings and taking care of them when made 
in spring. Furthermore, a house of this kind will 
be found very useful for growing reserve plants 
during the summer. It is always important to 
have on hand a supply of good plants to trans- 
plant where others are lost from the main 
houses. A sash house, constructed with open 
sides and ends, can be used for growing plants, 
and the latter will in such cases do much better 
than when grown in frames or in the open air. 
In the spring, however, when the main houses 
become crowded with boxes of cuttings, the sash 
house will be found exceedingly valuable for stor- 
ing the flats of young plants. In such cases com- 
paratively little heat is required, owing to the 
lateness of the season. The young plants are at 
all times within reach, so that they can be kept 
clean and fumigated with gas if it is found 
necessary to do so. 

For houses of this character three by six sash 
are the most advantageous. Such sash made of 
white pine can be bought complete, that is, 
glazed and with two coats of paint, for two dol- 
lars each. The woodwork necessary for the con- 



74 CONSTRUCTION. 

struction of such a house would cost comparatively 
little. Ordinarily in constructing a house of this 
kind two beds are first made, with a walk fourteen 
inches wide between them. These beds are made 
of twelve inch hemlock boards, which are nailed to 
two by three inch hemlock posts set four feet apart. 
In order to keep the boards in place the hemlock 
posts are driven six to eight inches in the ground 
and then wired to opposite posts or to sticks 
driven down for the purpose. The total width of 
such a house should be ten feet, including the 
path. The path being fourteen inches wide, 
there is left on each side a bed four feet five 
inches wide. To support the sash, uprights, made 
of two by four hemlock studs, are nailed to the 
outside boards of the frame. These uprights are 
placed about six feet apart and should project 
two feet above the frame. After being set in 
this way and nailed to the boards, the tops 
should be sawed at the same slant or pitch the 
roof is to have. A two by three stud is then 
nailed to the tops of the posts for a plate and 
upon this the ends of the sash are allowed to rest. 
The sash are simply brought together at the top 
and nailed, no ridge being required. They are 
also nailed at the bottom and no further support 
is necessary. 

Where the house is intended for late spring 
and summer use it is of course not necessary to 
provide for ventilation, as plenty of air is always 
circulating through the sides and ends, which are 



SASH HOUSES. 75 

left open. For cuttings in the spring, however, 
where some heat is necessary, the sides and ends 
must be closed up. This can be done by means 
of rough pine or hemlock boards, over which may 
be nailed, on the outside, tarred paper. The ends 
may be closed in the same way, leaving a door 
at one end for entrance. In such cases it is 
necessary to effect ventilation to loosen about 
every third sash and hinge it at the top. Pieces 
of leather can be used for hinges and each sash may 
be raised and propped with a stick. A house of 
this kind sixty feet long should have on each side 
four movable sash for ventilating. The ventilat- 
ing sash should not come opposite each other, 
otherwise they cannot be hinged at the top. 

In order to heat a house of this kind for 
spring use, run two one and one-quarter inch 
pipes down each side, to be fed by a one and one- 
half inch flow running under the ridge or down the 
sash so as to get the proper fall. Such a house 
may be used for growing the violets through 
the season and is one of the most inexpensive 
that could be erected. In such a case, however, it 
will be necessary to run at least four one and one- 
qnarter inch pipes down each side, the same to be 
fed by two one and one-half inch flows. 

Such a house for spring use sixty feet in 
length, would cost approximately as follows: 

40 sash, 3x6 feet, at #2.00 each #80 00 

Lumber for sides, ends, and beds 20 00 

Nails, hardware, etc 2 00 

Heating pipes and heating apparatus 50 00 

Total #152 00 



7 6 



CONSTRUCTION. 




FRAMES. 77 

As will be seen, this is a very cheap house, 
and will hold from forty to fifty thousand cuttings 
placed in flats. If planted in the ordinary way, 
i. e., eight by nine inches, it will hold about one 
thousand plants. For summer use alone, that is, 
without heating apparatus, sides, or ends, the 
house can be erected for less than one hundred 
dollars. For growing plants in order to get 
flowers throughout the winter the cost will be 
about two hundred dollars, on account of the extra 
heating pipe needed. 

If a shorter house than the one here described 
is wanted it is a comparatively easy matter to 
build it. A house thirty feet long would cost 
little more than half as much, so it will be seen 
that there are a number of advantages in having 
sash for use in this way. 

CONSTRUCTION OF FRAMES. 

The simplest form of structure for growing 
violets is the frame, which may be either cold or 
heated. Frames should be located on ground that 
is well drained, and if possible should have some 
protection from north winds. It is customary to 
place them, when practicable, at the foot of a hill, 
but if this cannot be done it is desirable to have 
them on the windward side of trees or some 
similar place where the north wind will not sweep 
over them. 

For violets the frames are ordinarily made on 



78 



CONSTRUCTION 




FRAMES. 79 

top of the ground, that is, it is best not to dig the 
ground out, for the reason that water is apt to 
accumulate around the roots and the plants in 
consequence will suffer. Rough pine boards are 
used for constructing the frames. The back of the 
frame is usually made of a board twelve inches wide, 
while for the front a board eight inches wide is 
required. Frames always face the south, that is, 
they run east and west. The frames may be made 
either continuous or in sections. When continu- 
ous, posts are driven into the ground and boards 
are nailed to them, so that the frame is just wide 
enough to take a sash six feet long. The length 
may be indefinite and will vary according to the 
surroundings and nature of the land. Ordinarily 
it is preferable to have several lengths of frames 
separated by six or eight feet rather than to have 
one long tier. After the boards have been erected 
they should be braced every six feet by a one by 
three inch strip sunk and nailed into the back and 
front boards level with the edge of each. Frames 
so constructed will cost about seventy-five cents 
per running foot. This is without mats or shutters 
for protecting the plants in very cold weather. 

Mats may be made of straw or burlaps, and 
shutters may be constructed of wood, or if not 
made into the size of the sash themselves ordinary 
twelve foot boards can be used. For burlap mats 
or boards the additional cost of frame will be 
about fifteen cents per running foot, which makes 



8o 



CONSTRUCTION. 




FRAMES. 8 1 

the total cost ninety cents per foot. Therefore a 
frame one hundred feet long, constructed as 
described, with mats or boards for covering in 
cold weather, will cost approximately ninety dol- 
lars. Such a frame will hold about twelve hundred 
plants, so that the cost of space per plant in this 
case will be approximately eight cents. As will 
be seen, this is the cheapest method for growing 
plants, and for this reason many adopt it in the 
beginning. There are so many disadvantages 
in growing plants in frames however, that they 
should not be used where it is possible to make a 
house. The disadvantages are referred to in 
detail in other places, so that it is not necessary 
to name them here. 

The question of mats or of some means of pro- 
tection during excessively cold weather is of great 
importance, for unless such protection is given the 
plants will be so severely frozen as to be made 
useless. The backs and fronts of the frames must 
also be protected as soon as cold weather sets in. 
This is usually accomplished by banking up soil 
or manure to within an inch or an inch and a half 
of the top of the frame. The most common prac- 
tice for protecting the plants is using ordinary 
boards twelve inches wide and sixteen feet long. 
These are simply laid on the frames when, cold 
weather comes on and serve in a measure to 
exclude the frost. It is much work, however, to 
put these boards on and take them off, for this 



FRAMES. 83 

must be done promptly whenever the conditions 
require change. Mats are somewhat more con- 
venient and are used to a considerable extent in 
various parts of the country. The cheapest, and 
in some respects the best form of mat is made of 
ordinary burlap quilted so as to hold between 
each piece about two inches of straw. The mats 
are ordinarily made of what is known as twelve 
ounce burlaps, forty-five inches wide, which costs 
about six cents a yard. The straw between the 
tackings of the mat is about two inches thick, but 
where the tackings are made it is only about half 
an inch thick, as the string is pulled tight and 
tied in a square knot to prevent all danger of its 
getting loose. These mats complete cost about 
thirty-five cents each, and with ordinary wear and 
tear will last two seasons. Mats similar to these 
are now. offered by many seed dealers at very 
reasonable prices, so that it hardly pays to make 
them at home. Straw mats are also used to a 
considerable extent, but they are more expensive 
than the others, and with the handling they must 
necessarily get will not last very much longer. 

Mats are in all cases preferable to boards. 
They keep the plants warmer and are not so 
unhandy to move about. The boards soon war}), 
and for this reason will not lie close to the glass. 
They are furthermore constantly in the way when 
laid between the frames, and as a rule cannot be 
handled readily by one person. Where frames 



8 4 



CONSTRUCTION. 




FRAMES. 85 

are made in sections it is the practice to have each 
section long enough to take five sash. Usually a 
space of twelve or fifteen inches is left between 
each section. In summer the sash are taken off 
and the frames are stored where the weather 
will not affect them. There is no particular 
advantage in making frames in this way. 

Frames are occasionally heated by means of 
hot water or steam pipes, and in this way the frost 
is excluded. The ordinary practice in heating 
with hot water is to run one one and a quarter 
inch pipe completely around the frame. The 
boiler is placed at a point several feet lower than 
the frame, and the pipe from this is so run as to 
give a slight rise to the end of the frame farthest 
from the boiler and a slight fall from the far end 
back to the boiler. The flow pipe is usually placed 
against the board on the north side of the frame, 
while the return is run along the board on the 
south side. 

A boiler with sufficient pipe to heat a frame 
one hundred feet long and six feet wide will cost 
approximately fifty dollars. While there are some 
advantages in heating frames in this way it is a 
question whether it would not pay in the end to 
use the boiler in heating a house made of sash, as 
already described — that is, having the sash and 
the boiler, better results could probably be ob- 
tained by constructing a house of sash so that 
the plants would be accessible at all times and 



86 CONSTRUCTION. 

there would be no delay or trouble in case of 
bad weather or heavy snow. 

A summarized comparison of the cost of the 
different structures described is interesting, and 
is, in round numbers, approximately as follows: 

For the first type of house, ioo x 12 feet— 

Per running foot $7 00 

Per square foot of bed space 63 

Per plant grown (2000 plants in each house) 32 

For the second type of house, 100x24 feet— 

Per running foot 12 00 

Per square foot of bed space 54 

Per plant (4000 plants in each house) 27 

For a sash house, 60 x 10 feet — 

Per running foot 3 25 

Per square foot of bed space 38 

Per plant 19 

For a cold frame, with mats of straw— 

Per running foot 90 

Per square foot of bed space 8 

Per plant 4 

For heated frame — 

Per runningfoot 1 40 

Per square foot of bed space 12 

Per plant 6 

It will be seen that of the two types of houses 
the larger one is proportionally the cheaper. It 
also has other advantages, the most important 
being that crops such as roses and carnations, may, 
with some minor changes, be grown in it. The 
low type of house, on the other hand, is not well 
adapted to the growth of any crop but the violet. 
In all cases there would be a saving where more 



COST OF HOUSES. 87 

than one house is built. In the case of the one 
hundred by twelve foot house, without intervening 
walls — 

3 can be erected complete for $1,600 

5 can be erected complete for 2,100 

There is not so much difference in the one 
hundred by twenty-four foot house — 

3 can be erected complete for $2,700 

5 (with a capacity for 20,000 plants) can be 

erected complete for 4,200 



88 WATER. 



CHAPTER IV. 



WATER SUPPLY. 

An abundant supply of good water is essential 
to the successful cultivation of any plant and the 
violet is no exception to this rule. Water is 
needed not only to keep the ground moist, but to 
syringe or spray in order to keep down red spider. 
For ordinary watering no force is required, but 
for spraying, arrangements must be made to get 
a pressure of not less than twenty pounds to the 
square inch in the system of pipes. Where city 
water is to be obtained and the rates are reason- 
able, the simplest plan is of course to merely get 
proper connections with the mains. Where this 
is not practicable, however, the water must be 
obtained either from wells or from some other 
source, and must be stored in a tank or some suit- 
able reservoir to be drawn upon when wanted. 
For two to three thousand plants a tank of one 
thousand gallons capacity will be sufficient, and 
for every two thousand additional plants a thou- 
sand gallons more of reservoir space will be 
required. Thus for ten thousand plants a tank 
holding not less than five thousand gallons should 
be at hand. These statements apply mainly where 



WINDMILLS. 89 

windmills are used for pumping, but they will 
also hold good for almost any kind of a pumping 
plant, as allowance must always be made for break- 
downs and other accidents. 

A windmill offers the cheapest power for 
mising water, but its chief drawback is the uncer- 
tainty of its action. With a reservoir of any of 
the capacities given, however, this objection is in 
a measure overcome, as it seldom happens that 
there are more than three or four days without 
wind and the supply in the tank will usually tide 
over these periods. A ten-foot windmill, with 
pump and tower, and five thousand gallon tank and 
tower for same complete, will cost about three 
hundred dollars. This outfit ought, under all 
ordinary conditions, to serve for from ten to 
fifteen thousand plants. 

As already mentioned, windmills have the 
objection of being uncertain in action. They 
furthermore do not give the facilities for spraying 
that can be obtained with other power. To 
obtain twenty pounds pressure, it will be neces- 
sary to have the tank raised more than forty feet 
above the beds, and this is not always practicable. 
Our preference is therefore for an economical 
power that is ready at short notice and at all 
times and can be used for developing pressure as 
it is needed. Such a machine is to be found in 
many of the gasoline engines now on the market 
and which can be bought at very reasonable 



90 WATER. 

figures. A two horse power engine, complete 
with pump for either deep or shallow well, can 
be bought for two hundred to two hundred and 
fifty dollars. A tank of three thousand gallons 
capacity will increase the cost fifty dollars, so that 
the total expense of an outfit of this kind will be 
no more than a windmill. By using a ten gallon 
closed steel expansion tank for an air chamber 
water can be pumped directly into the pipe system 
at a pressure of twenty-five to thirty or forty 
pounds per square inch. The system can have a 
safety valve at some convenient point, with the 
overflow so arranged as to go into the main 
storage reservoir. With this plan the water can 
be drawn from the reservoir for ordinary watering, 
and for spraying the water can be forced by the 
engine and pump directly into the pipes. The 
cost of running such an engine is merely nominal. 
We have used one for several years and find that 
one dollar a month for gasoline and lubricating 
oil will give us five hundred gallons of water a 
day. A thousand gallons of water a day, which 
is enough for ten to fifteen thousand plants, would 
probably not cost more than two dollars or two 
dollars and fifty cents a month. Such gasoline 
engines if ignited with an electric spark are 
perfectly safe, can be started or stopped in a 
moment, and with ordinary care will last for 
years. 



TANKS. 91 

In piping houses there should be one pipe 
along each path, with hose connections fifty feet 
apart. For five houses, each one hundred feet by 
twelve feet, the main water pipe should be one 
and one-half inches in diameter, with an inch 
lateral in each house. The hose connections 
should be three-quarters of an inch, as it does 
not pay to use one inch hose. It rarely happens 
that watering goes on in more than one house 
at a time, so that the one and one-half inch main 
will be found large enough. 

We do not believe there is any special advan- 
tage in heating the water in winter. In fact so 
far as our experience goes cold water is just as 
good as warm water. This is the general con- 
clusion where careful comparative experiments 
have been made. It is sometimes an advantage 
to be able to use liquid fertilizers, and for this 
purpose a small tank of five hundred to eight 
hundred gallons should be provided. It should 
have a separate pipe system, one-inch pipe being 
large enough all round. If this tank can be set 
in a barn loft or some slightly elevated place 
where its contents will not freeze it will be an 
advantage. The additional cost of a tank of this 
kind, with pipes and fittings, will be about seventy- 
five dollars. Such a tank would have sufficient 
capacity for furnishing liquid food for eight to 
ten thousand plants. 



92 CARE OF PLANTS. 



CHAPTER V. 



PROPAGATING, SELECTING, PLANTING, 
CLEANING, WATERING, ETC. 

PROPAGATING. 

The violet may be propagated in a number of 
ways, and as much of the success in growing the 
crop depends on proper methods we shall go into 
some detail as to the various practices followed. 

One of the most common methods is to divide 
the crown. This can be done whenever there is 
sufficient crown to divide, but the common way is 
to make the divisions in spring after the flowering 
season is over. The plant is merely lifted with a 
spade or trowel, and after all the dirt is shaken off 
the roots the plant is pulled apart or cut apart, as 
one may think proper. In dividing such a crown 
young plants of various kinds will be found. 
Some will have long, "leggy" stems, with many 
leaf scars upon them; some will be short and 
stocky; some will have hard, woody roots, while 
others will show white, clean-growing roots cov- 
ered with young feeding rootlets and root hairs. 
It is the general practice to throw away the 
scrawny plants and to put the others in soil 



HANDLING YOUNG PLANTS. 



93 



or sand, or in a mixture of both, in order to induce 
further root development and growth. Some 
make a practice of putting the young plants in a 
frame outside, setting them in rows about three 
inches apart and two inches distant in the row. If 




SI.— Cuttings with hard, wiry roots, from divided crowns. 
sand is used about four inches is spread on the 
ground, and after being firmed with a brick or 
board the young plants are set in with a dibble. 
Whue washed sash is kept over the frame and 



CARE OF PLANTS. 




HANDLING YOUNG PLANTS. 95 

plenty of air is given night and day when the 
weather permits. As the plants are never put out 
in this way until the first or middle of April no heat 
is required. In case soil is used care is taken to 
add about three inches of good rotten manure to 
ordinary garden soil. The manure is thoroughly 
worked in and the ground is made as fine as it is 
possible to make it with rake and spade. It should 
never be packed. When smoothed off set the 
plants the same as described for sand. In both 
cases the plants must be watched carefully and 
syringed every bright day in order to keep down 
red spider, taking care not to over-wet the soil. In 
six or eight weeks after setting in frames as 
described, the plants will be ready to transplant to 
the place where they are to make their summer 
growth. 

There are many objections to propagating 
plants in this way and the best growers have long 
since abandoned it. In dividing the crown, and 
thereby carrying over each year some of the old 
roots, various diseases affecting the former are 
carried over also, and if the practice is continued 
from year to year the tendency is to gradually 
develop a weak, non-resistant stock. The grower 
in such cases gradually finds himself losing his 
ability to get good plants and usually satisfies his 
conscience by saying that luck is against him. We 
have examined thousands of apparently strong, 
vigorous plants, after being lifted in the spring 



g6 CARE OF PLANTS. 




33.— Common form of cutting from divided crown. This 
will make a good plant if properly rooted in soil. 



WHEN TO PROPAGATE. 97 

preparatory to division, but have never yet found 
one where the roots, both young and old, did not 
show disease. Of these diseases we shall speak in 
the proper place ; suffice it to say here that they 
are of such a nature that they gradually continue 
their insidious work after the young plant is put 
out, and while the latter may appear strong when 
it is put in the ground, the trouble is present, and 
after a while, when an extra strain comes, the 
effects, in one form or another, will surely appear. 

Another serious objection to this method is 
that it must necessarily be done late, after bloom- 
ing time is over or nearly over. This in many 
sections will delay the work of propagation to such 
an extent that if unusual weather conditions pre- 
vail through April or May much injury will result 
to the young plants. If a hot spell of weather 
comes on, as it often does in the earlypart of May, 
the young plants are sure to suffer, and weak, 
stunted stock is the result. We have never 
found it safe to put in stock after 
April fifteenth. 

Another method of propagation, and one open 
to fewer objections than the last, consists in cut- 
ting the offshoots, or cuttings, from the main 
plant any time from the first of February to the 
middle of March. In this case the main plant is 
not disturbed, but the young offshoots, which in 
good plants are found in abundance, are cut off, 
only those being selected which show young, 



98 CARE OF PLANTS. 

white roots. These roots in most cases have never 
reached the soil, but are sent out into the semi- 
dark, moist air, made so by the plant as a whole. 
A good, strong- crown will give from ten to twenty 
cuttings, such as we have described, between the 
first part of February and the middle of March. 
As soon as the cuttings are removed they should 
be thrown into a box with a lid or cover, so as to 




34. — Lath box, or Hat, for rooted cuttings. 

keep them from wilting. When a sufficient quan- 
tity has been cut they are trimmed up and placed 
in soil as follows: 

Prepare the soil several weeks in advance, us- 
ing four parts good rotten sod and one part finely 
rotted manure. Mix thoroughly and screen through 
an ordinary sand screen or anything having a simi- 
lar-sized mesh. Keep the soil where it cannot 
get too wet and never handle it when there is too 
much moisture present. The soil being prepared, 
make a lot of boxes, using for the ends strips 
of undressed white pine one inch thick, three 



BOXES FOR CUTTINGS. 99 

inches wide, and fourteen inches long. For the 
sides and bottom use ordinary laths cut exactly 
in half. In making the boxes put on the bot- 
tom first, nailing on the two outside laths at the 
start, then filling in between with others, allowing 
about a quarter of an inch space between each two 
pieces of lath. The bottom being made, put on the 
sides. Each side will take two pieces of lath 
without space between them. The boxes are now 
ready to fill with soil, but before doing this spread 
on the bottom of each box a thin coating of wet 
sphagnum moss to keep the soil from washing out. 
Put in enough soil to stand about half an inch 
higher than the edges of the box, then take a brick 
and gently press the soil down so that it is uni- 
formly about half an inch below the edges of the 
box. Set the cuttings with a dibble, so that they 
will average one hundred to the box. 

In one box put thirteen rows of eight plants 
each, in another twelve rows of eight plants each, 
and so on. After setting out in this way, the 
plants are shaded and watered carefully for a few 
days, and then moved outside into a cold frame or 
preferably kept in a house where they can be 
looked after at all times. If put outside they 
should be kept covered with a whitewashed sash. 
Where sashes are at hand we prefer to make a 
temporary house out of them. Such a house has 
already been described and it will be found that 
the plants can be looked after much better in 



IOO CARE OF PLANTS. 

them than in a frame. Moreover they will grow 
better because the air can be kept more moist, 
diseases and insects can be kept down, and all con- 
ditions necessary for growth can be managed to 
better advantage. 

We mention the ordinary cold frame with 
sash not because we favor it, but merely to show 
that they have been given fair trial and have been 
found wanting. This method of propagation ap- 
plies particularly to the Campbell violet. If all the 
conditions are carefully watched, fine plants can 
be grown in this way. We do not advise 
using boxes or flats with close bot- 
toms as drainage is not so good and 
the roots in consequence will not 
develop so well. Roots need air at all 
times, and where this is given through proper 
soil, proper drainage, and proper watering, it is 
astonishing the way the young plants start off and 
grow. 

The third method of propagation and the one 
generally followed by growers of Marie Louise, 
consists in taking cuttings from the crowns any 
time between the middle of January and the mid- 
dle of March. These cuttings in many cases have 
already made some air roots, but these should all 
be trimmed off at the same time the cutting proper 
is trimmed up. After trimming, the cuttings are 
put in sand to root. The sand is an important 
item. It should be moderately coarse and very 



SAND FOR PROPAGATION. IOI 

clean, especially as regards decaying leaves or or- 
ganic matter of any kind. If obtained from 
creeks or small streams it is apt to have too much 
organic matter in it. River sand and bank sand 
are the best. At Poughkeepsie most of the propa- 
gating sand is obtained from banks which crop 
out at various places, and it is almost wholly free 
from organic matter. The banks are really veins 
or strata of sand deposited ages ago. One can- 
not be too particular about the sand, and while we 
cannot describe exactly the kind to use, the few 
hints thrown out will enable the man of intelli- 
gence to properly exercise his judgment. We 
make it a point never to use the 
sand but once, as it is cheaper to get 
new sand than to have the cuttings 
infected with disease. 

The sand may be put in boxes as already de- 
scribed for soil. It should be pressed a little more 
firmly than the soil and watered before putting in 
the cuttings. The cuttings we put in with a dib- 
ble the size of a lead pencil, two hundred cuttings 
to a box. After filling the boxes the cuttings 
should be looked after carefully for about two 
weeks or more. During very bright days they 
should be covered with single sheets of news- 
paper, and if the weather is warm and the sun 
bright the papers should have a dash of water 
thrown on them with the sprinkling can during 
the heat of the day. Place the cuttings in a sash 



102 



CARE OF PLANTS. 




CARE OF CUTTINGS. IO3 

house as already described, or if there is room in 
the houses proper keep them there. Never allow 
them, under any circumstances, to wilt, for if they 
do it means another reduction in the total output 
of salable flowers. Where facilities are at hand 
the cuttings can be rooted in a cutting bench, 
using about three inches of sand firmed and 
watered. Put the cuttings in rows about one and 
one-half inches apart in the row. The cutting 
bench must be carefully shaded and must be so 
arranged that currents of air cannot sweep over 
it. The shed house, with glass roof sloping to the 
north, already described, forms an excellent place 
for such a bench. It requires four to eight weeks 
for cuttings put in sand as described to root prop- 
erly. They may stay in longer than this without 
injury, but as soon as they are well rooted they 
should be transferred to lath boxes containing 
soil, one hundred to a box. If there is space in 
the greenhouse the rooted cuttings may be set in 
one of the beds. Set in rows two inches apart 
and one inch in the row, using a dibble made by 
trimming to a point a piece of broom handle six 
or eight inches long. Never use old soil 
for these cuttings, that is, soil that 
has once been used for violets. It 
costs very little extra labor to get fresh soil for 
the purpose and the labor will pay a hundred fold. 
The principal object of this transplanting is 
to get good, strong, clean roots. We have had 



104 



CARE OF PLANTS. 




PROPAGATING. ioq 

excellent success in this matter by throwing the old 
soil out of a bed to a depth of eight inches and then 
putting in about two inches of coarse coal ashes, 
broken clinkers, and the like. On top of this put 
two inches of sifted coal ashes, and finally four 
inches of good soil, made, mixed, and sifted as 
already described. The roots run down into the 
ashes and come out clean, white, and beautiful, 
and covered with root hairs. 

Growers attempt, once in a while, to set 
directly from the sand to the beds where the 
plants are to make their growth. We have tried 
this plan, but cannot recommend it, as the risk 
in handling the plants is too great. If cloudy, 
damp weather follows after the planting no harm 
may result, but if it should be bright and warm the 
plants will suffer in spite of all that can be done. 
There are other objections to this plan, but they 
need not be mentioned here, as the best growers 
do not follow the practice at all. 

We have now described the three principal 
methods followed in propagation. The last we 
recommend to those who have had considerable 
experience and who are growing Marie Louise. 
Our preference is for a combination of the second 
and third methods. In both cases the cuttings are 
taken from the plants as they stand in the bed. 
Those which have good, clean, white roots can be 
put in the soil as already described, but those 
which are just as good in every way except as 



106 CARE OF PLANTS. 

to the number of roots, may have all the latter 
cut off and made to make new ones in the sand. 
Following this practice, about half the cuttings go 
into the soil and half into sand. This practice 
is especially commendable where Campbells are 
grown, but for Marie Louise, as already pointed 
out, the sand method throughout is believed to be 
the best. 

The plants when placed in soil as already de- 
scribed are to stand there until they are finally 
set in the beds, which south of New York, 
Pittsburg, and Chicago should not be later than 
the first of June. North of this they may run till 
the middle of June, or at the very latest the first 
of July. Leaving out the first practice entirely, 
it will be seen that in the second the young plants 
stand in soil-filled flats or boxes from sixty to one 
hundred and twenty days and then are set directly 
where they are to grow for flowering. In the 
third practice the young plants are in sand about 
fifty days, when they are transferred to soil where 
they remain until planting time, which runs, 
according to locality, from the first of June to the 
first of July. Any one by managing properly and 
having not over twenty thousand plants ought to 
be able to do all his planting in fifteen to twenty 
days. In our section, Washington, we prefer 
to plant between the first of May and the first 
of June. 

We have omitted the practice of fall propa- 



FALL-MADE CUTTINGS. 107 

gation, but it will be well to discuss it briefly as 
some of the older growers believed in it on 
the ground that it was the only way the stock 
could be maintained in a healthy condition. 
Their argument was that the violet is a plant 
that needs a period of rest, and that propa- 
gating in spring just after the plant had been 
pushed through winter flowering is contrary to 
nature's methods of increasing the plants. It is 
true that the violet makes its principal effort in 
the way of sending out runners in the fall, and 
theoretically this would be the proper time to 
propagate, as good wood can then be had in abun- 
dance. Practically, however, there are many 
objections to the plan. Adopting it necessitates 
carrying the young plants through the winter, 
and, no matter how much care is exercised in 
watching them, they nearly always suffer either 
from being kept too cold or too warm, too dry 
or too moist. In other words, despite every 
precaution they get stunted or checked so severely 
that many of them never rally from the shock, 
consequently do not prove as vigorous as cuttings 
made in the spring and properly handled. 

Another question to consider, and one that 
we have found of much importance, is that 
during their long stand in flats or beds they are 
apt to become infected with one or more of the 
several stem and root diseases, and while these 
may not be plainly evident in the spring, they 



108 CARE OF PLANTS. 

are present, nevertheless, and will develop and 
do serious injury later. There is this to be said, 
however, that choosing between the methods 
of division after blooming time and propagat- 
ing in the fall, we would prefer the latter, because 
we believe that better results will follow. Finally, 
in using the fall-rooted plants there is always 
the danger of the plants getting too big. It 
is as bad to have a plant too big as it is to have 
it too small, and if set too early or started too early 
the growth will become so heavy in hot weather 
that it will be found impossible to keep down 
diseases and insects. If a grower has everything 
at his disposal in the way of houses and facilities 
for handling the young plants it would probably be 
well to propagate some of the stock in the fall, 
but if he has to put up with the ordinary facilities 
he had better leave fall cuttings alone. Fall prop- 
agating really means a special house for the 
proper care and handling of the young plants 
through a period of six or eight months — a hand- 
ling so that they will not grow too much or too 
little (problems that are beyond the reach of most 
men). We have now described the mere act of 
propagating or increasing the number of plants 
and have next to consider the most important 
question connected with violet growing, namely, 
the selection of stock with a view of increasing 
vigor and productiveness. 



SELECTION OF STOCK. IO9 

SELECTION OF STOCK FOR VIGOR AND PRODUC- 
TIVENESS. 

To grasp this question fully we must first 
realize that the violet, like other plants, is a plastic 
organism — that within a certain range it has power 
to change or to adapt itself to the conditions which 
surround it. This plasticity or adaptability of the 
plant is of the utmost importance, for if all its 
functions were fixed, absolutely it could not suffer 
any change for long, however slight. We find, 
therefore, in practice, that plants grown in one 
section and moved to another behave differently — 
it may be in the matter of time of blooming, quan- 
tity of flowers, character of foliage, size or color of 
flowers, length of flower stem, or in many other 
directions. Recognizing this fact, and those that 
are naturally correlated with it, we have the 
important practical conclusion that the only 
way for a man to attain the maximum 
results from the plants is to work 
steadily, intelligently, and rationally 
toward the end of developing a strain 
which will fit the conditions which 
practice and judgment enable him to 
provide. Of course, the man himself is limited 
in this matter, but he should endeavor first of all 
to find out what his limitations are and then con- 
centrate his efforts in the field where there is hope 
of practical results. As a matter of fact, the 
limitations are more fancied than real and where 



no 



CARE OF PLANTS. 




I 2 

I! 

cr o 

OS 



FIXING AN IDEAL. Ill 

the work is intelligently undertaken and carried 
out it is astonishing what power is put within 
the grasp. 

It is seldom that violet growers average more 
than fifty flowers to the plant for the season. 
There is no good reason why this number should 
not be increased to one hundred or even one hun- 
dred and fifty flowers per plant without additional 
room, additional heat, additional fertilizers, or ad- 
ditional work of any kind except in the care nec- 
essary to keep up the stock by proper selection. 
How then should this selection be started, and 
how should it be continued in order to reap the 
full benefit from it? To start at the beginning, 
it will be found that the first stock of plants, no 
matter where obtained, will show differences : 
Some will be small, some large; some will give 
long-stemmed flowers, others flowers with short 
stems; some will show a tendency to throw flow- 
ers off in color; some will have a straggling habit 
of growth, others will be compact, with large 
leaves on long petioles. As the season for flower 
picking arrives these plants should be carefully 
gone over and the grower should fix in his own 
mind his ideal or type. It does not take long to 
learn what plants more closely approximate the 
type. Out of one thousand plants there may not 
the first year be more than a hundred that show 
the characteristics he is after. We cannot put 
down in black and white what these characteristics 



112 



CARE OF PLANTS. 




I\ V., 



» "lie «• ta v v 1 £ V £ V* ~ 







METHOD OF SELECTION. II3 

are, except in the most general way. The plants 
should be vigorous and give every evidence that 
they are growing. They should have a compact, 
symmetrical appearance. The leaves should be 
glossy, green, large, and on long petioles, and 
should feel, when you run your hand over them, 
like living, growing things, and not like they were 
made of leather or cloth. If a hundred or less 
of such plants are found stake them before 
flowering commences, and to each stake tie an 
ordinary shipping tag. Push the stake well into 
the soil so that it will not interfere with working the 
beds, and tie the tag on securely so that it will not 
come off or get lost. Each plant is then given a 
number, which is never duplicated. We give one 
hundred plants as the limit for the first year's 
work, for this is about as many as one can well 
handle until more experience is gained. There 
would, therefore, be one hundred numbers — from 
one to one hundred. Every time a tagged plant 
is reached while picking, count the number of 
flowers and put down on the tag the date and 
number of flowers picked. We presume there will 
be some who upon reading this, will say: "I have 
not the time to do this and what is the good of it 
all anyway ? " These are the men who insist that 
luck governs the question, and while they will 
always be found they are constantly vexed with 
ups and downs and sooner or later quit. As a 
matter of fact, it takes very little time to do what 



114 CARE OF PLANTS. 

has been outlined and anyone who will follow the 
practice for three years will be willing- to hire 
additional help, if necessary, to keep up the work, 
because he will see that it pays. 

When the season's work is over it will be found 
that the tagged plants show many interesting facts. 
They show the total number of flowers picked 
and the number picked each month, and they 
show too the relation of flower yield to weather 
conditions if one wishes to carry the matter into 
this field. Some plants have grown fifty flowers, 
others as many as one hundred and fifty. Some 
will give the greatest number of flowers in Decem- 
ber and January, others in February and March. 
Here then, are practical points that should at once 
be taken advantage of. Vigor, health, compact- 
ness of growth being equal, we would want our 
plants to yield an many flowers as possible, and at 
a time when they are worth the most money; so 
that of two plants both of which give a hundred 
flowers, we would give the preference to the one 
that yields the most flowers during December and 
January rather than to the one that gives the 
greater yield during February and March. Of 
the pedigree stock we would eliminate all plants 
where the yield the first year dropped below 
seventy-five flowers. The second year we would 
eliminate all plants that failed to give more than 
ninety flowers, and the third year all those that 
failed to give a hundred good blooms. 



IMPORTANCE OF SELECTION. 115 

Each plant can be counted on to give not less 
than ten first-class cuttings, so that if only fifty 
plants come up to the standard the first year they 
will give at least five hundred good rooted cut- 
tings for the second season. Each of these plants 
should carry the number of their parent, with an 
additional mark to indicate the season; for ex- 
ample, the ten plants from number one the first 
year would all be recorded as plants a, 
next year the plants from these would be plants 
b, and so on. If the work is carried out well 
the first year, three hundred plants, repre- 
senting the best of the five hundred, can be 
staked the second season. These receive their 
specified numbers, are watched as before, and will 
give from one thousand to one thousand five hun- 
dred good plants for the next season's crop. 
Working in this way, and of course keeping clear- 
ly before one the importance of looking after every 
detail of culture, the average yield can be brought 
up to the one hundred mark, where it may be kept 
as long as the proper vigilance and intelligence 
are exercised in the work. We are satisfied 
that two-thirds of the failures in 
growing violets come about from not 
fully recognizing the principles we have 
here set forth. Left to itself, or if not 
properly assisted, the tendency of the violet is to 
retrograde, partly no doubt because it has been 
grown so long under abnormal conditions and 



Il6 CARE OF PLANTS. 

partly for other reasons, which it is not necessary 
to discuss in detail here. We find in it very much 
the condition of a loaded car on a steep grade. It 
is always ready to go down hill the moment we 
take off the brake or remove the block from the 
rail. The further it goes the more difficult it is to 
stop, and if we do not put forth some effort there 
will be a general smash-up sooner or later. On 
the other hand, by dint of much labor we can 
slowly push up grade, but we are always con- 
fronted with the fact that the moment we lose 
our watchfulness the down-hill motion commences, 
and away goes everything we have gained. 

The author's work is done when he points out 
the facts and principles involved, and it remains 
for the reader to do the rest. 

PLANTING, 

We have pointed out in the previous chapter 
how to prepare the soil and have shown in the 
first part of this chapter how the plants are to be 
cared for until the time for planting. As already 
stated, we prefer to get our plants out permanent- 
ly between the first of May and the first of June in 
latitudes south of New York, but north of this 
planting may be delayed fifteen or twenty days. 
Having the soil stacked and ready near the houses 
the first operation is to throw out the old plants 
and remove six inches of the soil from the beds. 
The old plants are merely lifted with a spade, the 
earth is shaken off, and then they are thrown out- 






PLANTING. 117 

side into a heap to be hauled away to the dump 
or burned. If hauled away we want to get them 
as far away from the houses as possible. In any 
event they should never be allowed to lie around 
and rot and decay. 

The soil is best handled in wheelbarrows. It 
is hauled out and thrown in a heap close by, 
to be finally disposed of when more time is at 
hand. When the six inches of soil is taken out 
all boards are examined and if any are found 
rotted they are taken out and new ones put in. 
The beds are next spaded up with a fork and 
air-slacked lime is thrown over the ground in suffi- 
cient quantity to thoroughly whiten it. The new 
soil is then brought in with the wheelbarrows and 
dumped into the beds. Enough soil is brought in 
to fill the beds just even with the boards. In 
no case is the soil ro 11 ed, w alke d on, 
or packed in any way. When sufficient 
soil is in the bed the latter is leveled off with a 
rake, all clods, stones, large sticks, etc., being 
thrown out. Finally the beds are made smooth 
and level by means of a straight-edged board four 
inches wide and not longer than the width of the 
bed. 

The bed is now ready to be marked off. 
This can be done in a number of ways, the main 
object being to get the plants set as nearly in 
straight rows as possible, eight by nine inches 
apart. It often happens that the board marking 



il8 CARE OF PLANTS. 

the walk is not straight and if the plants are 
set straight by a line they appear crooked on 
account of the board, as that is what the eye 
usually follows. To keep the rows straight with 
the board use a simple T square made of a piece 
of four inch white pine. By using the board of 
the walk as a base for the square all the rows come 
in line with the walk, and at least appear more 
pleasing to the eye even if they are not mathe- 
matically straight. By means of a saw permanent 
lines are marked off nine inches apart on the 
board forming the edge of the walk. Similar lines 
are made eight inches apart on the square. The 
square can then be moved rapidly along over the 
ground and a hole made with a dibble where the 
plant is to be set. We usually try to have the plants 
set back at least five inches from the edge of the 
walk, so it takes a little figuring at first to tell how 
to divide the space across the bed. As soon as the 
bed is marked the plants are set, as better results 
are obtained in this way than where the ground is 
allowed to settle. In case it is not practicable to 
plant at once and if the ground settles too much 
before planting can be done, the beds should be 
freshly turned up with a fork and then raked down 
and smoothed as before described. 

The plants are cut out of the boxes or bed 
where they have been growing and all dead leaves 
and buds are trimmed off. They are then carried 
to the bed where they are to be planted and laid 



PLANTING. II9 

opposite each mark made by the dibble. The 
advantage of having- the stock plants in light fiats 
comes in here, for the flats can be carried to the 
bed and the plants cut out there — we say cut 
out, for we usually use a putty knife for the 
purpose. This is first run down between the rows 
of plants in the box, after which a cut is made 
between each two plants. In this way each plant 
comes out with a square piece of soil and the roots 
are disturbed very little. One good man can set 
as fast as two or three can prepare the plants as 
described. Where the reach is less than five feet 
the plants can be set from the walk, but if the 
beds are so wide that one cannot reach, planting 
is done from a board laid across the bed, but not so 
that it will compact the soil. Use a board twelve 
inches wide and work backwards in planting. 
Adopting this plan two rows can be planted with- 
out moving the board. The planting itself is an 
important item, and many plants will be lost and 
others injured unless care is exercised. The 
grower himself had better attend to this matter. 
We have never found anything better than the 
fingers for planting. A slight hole is made and 
the square of earth containing the young plant and 
its roots is pushed into the loose soil. A move- 
ment of the hand around the plant levels the soil 
and firms it and the work is done. Having the 
beds filled and leveled and the plants furnished, 
one man can mark the soil and set three hundred 



CARE OF PLANTS. 



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SHADING YOUNG PLANTS. 121 

plants an hour. If the day is warm and bright 
it will be necessary to water the plants as they are 
put out. One can plant for an hour, however, and 
then water, allowing the water to run gently from 
the end of the hose, and following the rows so as 
not to plow up the ground. At this season of the 
year it is of course necessary to have all venti- 
lators and doors open in order to get plenty of air, 
The glass also should be well shaded with white- 
wash or with white lead mixed with turpentine, 
either one to be put on with a brush. We have 
used laths for shading, but abandoned them for the 
reason that they interfere with the light in such a 
way as to hinder growth. The shading should be 
only moderately heavy, but it should be kept as 
nearly as possible the same throughout the en- 
tire year, that is, winter and summer we have 
found it an advantage to shade, but this may not 
hold good further north where sunshine is less 
abundant. 

All of our directions, it will be seen, apply to 
plants grown under glass throughout the year. 
We do not recommend held planting of violets 
anywhere, that is, if it is intended to grow them 
for flowering in houses the following winter. It 
is very important, however, to have some reserve 
plants, for there is always more or less loss in the 
beds. Here again the cheap frame house comes 
into good use, for it is well adapted for growing 
reserve plants. It is best to count on a loss of ten 



CARE OF PLANTS. 




PLANTING IN FRAMES. I23 

per cent, although this is heavier than it ought to 
be. For ten thousand plants, therefore, it would 
be necessary to have a reserve of at least one 
thousand plants to draw upon. 

When frames alone are used the plants can be 
set in two ways : First, the frames themselves can 
be put down where they are to stay and the plants 
set in rows eight by nine inches, as already 
described; second, the frames can be made, as 
already described, in sixteen foot lengths and 
stored until wanted. The plants are then set 
directly in the open, nine inches apart in the row, 
the rows being just long enough so that the 
frame will fit over them. There are so many 
objections to these methods and the obstacles to 
overcome are so great that we do not recommend 
them except in violet farming. Shade here is of 
the greatest importance during the summer and 
where the plants are grown in open frames or 
without frames this can only be brought about by 
using lath screens or something similar. The 
screens when made should not be too dense and 
should be raised at least four feet above the 
plants. In southern California violets are grown 
the whole season with no other protection than 
screens, made of laths, raised about eight feet 
above the plants. The flowers are shipped to Los 
Angeles and other points and are of fair quality. 

After the planting is completed and every- 
thing about the place has been cleaned up and put 



124 CARE OF PLANTS. 

in shape, the serious work of caring for the plants 
commences. 

CLEANING, WATERING, SYRINGING, MULCHING, AND 
FEEDING. 

Eternal vigilance is necessary in the matter 
of cleaning. We try to get over the plants at 
least once a week, cutting off all yellow and dying 
leaves and gently stirring the surface of the soil 
with the fingers. All weeds, too, are pulled up or 
torn up in the stirring. In cleaning we never use 
anything but a knife, as pulling the leaves off is a 
bad practice for it is apt to tear the bark and 
open the way for the attacks of fungi. Toward 
the middle of August the runners will begin to 
come, and they must be cut off as soon as possible. 
Many abortive flowers will appear too and they 
must not be allowed to stay on the plant. In 
cleaning we have made it an invariable practice 
to throw all dead leaves, runners, etc., into a box 
or basket, emptying these into a barrel or box out- 
side at suitable intervals. We do not believe it 
wise to throw the material into the walks, for no 
matter how soon the latter may be swept, some of 
the decaying material is trampled upon and in 
this way the first steps toward the beginning of 
disease may be taken. The only safe rule 
to follow is to never allow a leaf of 
any kind to lie around and decay in 
the houses or frames. We have time and 
time again seen growers cleaning their plants, 



CLEANING. I25 

especially where they are in frames, and throwing 
the dead leaves, runners, and weeds out under 
their feet, to be trampled into the mud. Such 
growers have fair success for a season or two, then 
wonder why it is that diseases and insect pests 
steadily increase until they finally get the upper 
hand. Cleanliness at all times and a 
thorough destruction of all diseased 
leaves, cuttings, and plants are mat- 
ters that should never be neglected. 
Watering to the ordinary man may really seem 
like a simple matter, but it is one of the most im- 
portant factors in the growth of this or any other 
crop. No hard and fast rules can be laid down on 
this subject. Water when the plants need it, 
which can only be determined by experience. 
We never water over head, but use the end of a 
three-quarter inch hose held in such a way that the 
water runs out freely but not forcibly. If the 
water comes out with too much force the soil is 
puddled and the plants may be washed up. 
When the plants are still young and the ground is 
soft a good plan is to fasten to the end of the hose 
an ordinary tin pancake turner, such as can be 
bought anywhere for ten cents. This can be 
fastened to the hose by a rubber band and will 
spread the water so that it will fall in a thin sheet 
about four inches wide. The water soaks in 
when put on in this way and seldom causes 
the formation of a crust — the thing to be avoided. 



126 CARE OF PLANTS. 

Plants in hot weather require water almost every 
day. At no time should the plants be allowed to 
become dry, nor should water be given so often 
that the soil is kept constantly in a pasty condition. 
In our judgment the best results will be obtained 
when the variation of the moisture in the soil is 
allowed the widest range the plants will stand. 
What this is cannot be given in words as too many 
conditions are involved. It is a question that 
must be studied by each individual and by him 
worked out for his own case. The point we 
wish to make is that better growth can 
be obtained by allowing a certain 
range or variation in the moisture 
content of the soil than where an 
attempt is made to keep the moisture 
content at one point or near one point. 
If, for example, we find that in a certain type of soil 
the best growth is obtained where the maximum 
moisture content approximates twenty per cent, it 
will be best not to attempt to hold the moisture 
steadily at this point, but rather to allow a varia- 
tion of five to eight per cent, as this is more apt to 
give optimum conditions for growth than where* 
an effort is put forth to hold it at one point. 

It is not necessary here to go into a discussion 
of the physiological questions involved in this 
matter. Suffice it to say that we may look at the 
plant in the light of a machine kept in operation 
in part by stimuli from without. Stimuli may 



WATERING AND MULCHING. 127 

come by changes in conditions and if everything 
works in harmony perfect growth is the result. 

As the season advances the plants will require 
more and more water, and every precaution will 
have to be taken not to let them wilt or to get on 
the dry side so often as to check growth. The 
plants must be kept growing without a check of 
any kind, so that by the middle of September they 
practically cover the ground. 

From the time of planting constant care must 
be exercised in the matter of syringing. Plants 
ought to be syringed throughout the summer and 
early fall not less than three times a week. We 
will discuss this question more fully in the 
chapter on insects and diseases as the syringing is 
mainly to keep down red spider. Always select 
bright days for the syringing so as to have the 
plants dry off before night. As the season 
advances and the plants grow larger much care 
must be exercised in syringing, otherwise serious 
results may follow, as will be pointed out further 
on. By the first or middle of October it will be 
necessary to withhold all water from the foliage, 
and if the spraying has been thorough this can be 
done without fear of injury from spider. 

About the middle of August we like to give 
the beds a thin mulching of finely rotted manure. 
Horse manure is best for this purpose, as it works 
up fine and dries out better on the bed. Put on 
just enough to cover the ground and work it well 



125 CARE OF PLANTS. 

around the plants. The manure mulching serves 
to keep the ground moist and free from weeds. It 
also keeps the flowers cleaner when they come and 
checks the growth of slime and green molds that 
sometimes appear on the soil. Mulching with 
sphagnum and with pine shavings has been tried, 
but both were abandoned in favor of the rotted 
horse manure. 

Feeding after the plants are once established 
is an important matter, but our advice to the 
beginners is to let it severely alone. There are 
three or four don'ts that come in aptly at this 
point: (i) Don't imagine that you must feed 
your plants in order to get the best results. This 
is true of some crops, but not of the violet. (2) 
Don't trifle with chemicals. They may be all right 
in the hands of an expert, but it is like putting 
strong medicine into the hands of a layman and 
turning him loose to doctor his friends. (3) If 
you must use chemical fertilizers don't experiment 
on all your plants, but set aside a few dozen in one 
bed and a few dozen in another, make your trials 
carefully, and compare the results obtained with 
those where no chemicals have been used. We 
know from many experiments that the only safe 
way is to feed as little as possible, as the plants if 
let alone will take care of themselves provided the 
soil is prepared as we have described elsewhere. 
When you do feed apply only manure water made 
by soaking good, strong cow manure in water, 



FEEDING. I29 

using* about one-half bushel of manure to the barrel 
of water. A watering with this kind of fertilizer 
every ten or fifteen days during the winter will do 
no harm and may do good. Great care, however, 
must be exercised in keeping the manure water 
fresh and odorless. If it is allowed to sour and be- 
come offensive it should never be run on the beds 
as the flowers will take up the odor. If we were 
growing roses, carnations, or chrysanthemums our 
discussion of the use of liquid fertilizers would be 
different, as these are crops that can stand feeding 
while the violet cannot — at least this has been our 
experience and the result of observations in many 
places and under widely varying conditions. 

In concluding this chapter there are several 
points to which we wish to call special attention : 
(t) Never delay propagating the plants until late 
in spring for such stock cannot be depended upon. 
(2) Always propagate two or even three times 
more plants than your houses or frames will hold 
in order to cover risks and to have plenty of stock 
for selection. (3) From the time the cutting 
leaves the parent plant until it has fulfilled its 
mission as a full grown crown, never allow it 
to become checked in any way. (4) Adopt a 
rigid system of selection. (5) Practice cleanli- 
ness about every part of the work. (6) Apply 
water with due regard for the plants' wants and 
not by any set of rules. 



130 TEMPERATURE AND VENTILATION. 



CHAPTER VI. 



TEMPERATURE CONDITIONS AND VENTILATION. 

The violet must be kept cool and any attempt 
to force it by heat will prove disastrous. For 
Campbell violets an effort should be made to keep 
the night temperature between forty-five and 
fifty degrees, with a day temperature, in bright 
weather, ten to fifteen degrees higher. Marie 
Louise should be kept cooler, say forty to forty- 
five at night, with day temperature fifty-five to 
sixcy. 

When the weather is cloudy and cold do not 
attempt to keep the inside temperature in the 
sixties or even the fifties. Probably the safest 
rule to follow with the violet at all times is to 
manage the conditions so as to have, as near as 
possible, an average temperature of eight or ten 
degrees above freezing. For example, if the 
temperature outside is thirty degrees above zero 
in the day time and the weather cloudy, keep 
the temperature of the houses not more than 
forty to forty-five degrees. If sunny weathei 
prevails the temperature will naturally go higher, 
but do not allow it to get above sixty degrees, ii 
it can be avoided by ventilation and allowing the 



VENTILATION. I31 

heating pipes to become cold. In the climate of 
Washington and vicinity it is very seldom neces- 
sary to have any fire in the heater during sunny 
weather, unless the temperature outside is exces- 
sively cold and high winds are blowing. As a 
rule the heat of the sun will be amply sufficient 
to keep the houses in good condition, so that it is 
always safest to either bank or cover the fires, or 
else allow them to die out entirely during the day. 
Of course, farther north these rules will not apply, 
but in a general way they will hold good every- 
where. It must be understood that the violet is 
unlike the rose or carnation as regards heat, and as 
already pointed out any attempt to force it will 
result in overgrowth of leaves- and blasting of the 
flowers. 

Ventilation has already been briefly men- 
tioned, but it is important to call attention to this 
matter more specifically, for it is of the highest 
importance to realize the necessity of giving plenty 
of air to the plant at all times. It is impossible to 
give directions as to how and when to ventilate. 
The violet is a lover of fresh air and plenty of it, 
so that there is seldom a day when more or less 
air should not be given. It must not be supposed 
that this is a simple matter, and one that can be 
left to the hired man or some irresponsible per- 
son. No two days in the year are exactly alike, 
so far as the requirements for ventilation are con- 
cerned. It frequently happens that air will be 



I32 TEMPERATURE AND VENTILATION. 

needed the first thing in the morning, and it should 
be given, not all at once, but little by little as the 
day advances and the plants require it. In the 
course of such a day changes may come about, 
necessitating letting the air off, so -that there 
is a constant changing either one way or another 
throughout the entire day. Even at night it is 
necessary to observe these precautions in order to 
keep the plants in good condition. It has been our 
practice to allow the houses to run just as cold as 
possible in the early part of February and later. 
It will not injure the plants late in the season to 
occasionally allow a little frost to get in. This 
will hold back the flowers and will give more re- 
turns as the season advances. In March or April, 
if the weather is mild, the doors and ventilators 
should be open at all times in order to get plenty 
of fresh air. If this practice is not followed the 
growth will be so rapid that blossoming will 
soon cease and there will be no flowers for Easter. 

One of the chief reasons why it is difficult for 
a grower to handle violets in connection with 
other crops is the failure to furnish proper tem- 
perature and ventilation for the violets. The 
tendency in such cases is always to give too much 
heat, and this more than anything else will soon 
manifest itself in the appearance of small, poorly 
colored flowers. 

The same care given in the houses must be 
observed where frames are used. Plants in a 



TEMPERATURE. 



133 



frame will burn up on a bright day unless air is 
properly given. Watch the conditions carefully 
and give air when the plants need it. Often it 
will only be necessary to raise one frame in five an 
inch or two in the back. Then again it may be 
necessary to raise all three or four inches to keep 
the plants from suffering. On mild days in winter 
it will improve the plants to occasionally take the 
frames entirely off, allowing the air to dry out the 
soil and the sun to warm it. Snow must be re- 
moved as soon as possible, but it often happens 
that a good coating of snow will save the plants 
from freezing. If it promises to be very cold after 
a snow it is best to leave the latter on for twenty- 
four or even for forty-eight hours. If left longer 
than this the plants may suffer for want of light. 

It may be of interest to give in tabulated 
form the temperature records of a violet house for 
five months of the winter period. These records, 
which were made for the writer by Mr. Geo. Salt- 
ford, of Poughkeepsie, New York, show the high- 
est, lowest, and average temperatures recorded 
during the day and also during the night in his 
houses. A study of the records will be of value 
to those who desire to keep their houses in the 
proper condition so far as temperature is con- 
cerned. Although made at Poughkeepsie, the 
records are applicable to most sections where 
violets are grown. 



134 



TEMPERATURE AND VENTILATION. 



Record of Night and Day Temperatures and Sunshine 
for five months. 

DECEMBER, 1895. 





Night temperature. 


Day temperature. 


Sunshine. 




Degrees F. 


Degrees F. 




Date. 


Readings at 7 A.M. 


Readings at 7 p.m. 


(10 equals 


Dec, 1895. 






sunshine 
all day, 8 
















equals 8-10 




Max. 


Min. 


Mean. 


Max. 


Min. 


Mean. 


of day, etc.) 


13 


46 


35 


40 


68 


54 


61 


8 


14 


47 


42 


44 


64 


39 


51 


10 


15 


47 


42 


44 


65 


44 


54 


7 


16 


48 


44 


46 


64 


43 


53 


10 


17 


48 


4i 


44 


64 


44 


54 


10 


18 


52 


43 


42 


62 


46 


54 


5 


19 


53 


46 


49 


68 


46 


57 


10 


20 


58 


46 


52 


72 


52 


62 


7 


21 


58 


53 


55 


65 


53 


59 


4 


22 


60 


45 


54 


66 


44 


55 


9 


23 


54 


48 


5i 


65 


50 


57 


6 


24 


60 


46 


53 


70 


47 


58 


9 


25 


54 


50 


52 


59 


50 


54 


7 


26 


55 


49 


52 


62 


52 


57 


4 


27 


57 


44 


50 


67 


46 


56 


10 


25 


47 


42 


44 


60 


42 


5i 


10 


29 


52 


44 


48 


56 


43 


49 


7 


30 


50 


40 


45 


51 


43 


47 


00 


31 


60 


42 


5i 


55 


44 


49 


10 


Average, 
or mean... 


53 


44 


48 


63 


46 


55 





TEMPERATURE. 
JANUARY, 1896. 



135 





Night temperature. 


Day temperature. 


Sunshine. 




Degrees F. 


Degrees F. 




Date. 


Readings at 7 a.m. 


Readings at 7 p.m. 


(10 equals 


Jan., i8q6. 






sunshine 








all day, 8 
















equals 8-10 
of day, etc.) 




Max. 


Min. 


Mean. 


Max. 


Min. 


Mean. 


1 


45 


40 


42 


58 


42 


50 


IO 


2 


46 


40 


43 


61 


44 


52 


9 


3 


47 


44 


45 


71 


46 


58 


9 


4 


46 


38 


42 


60 


40 


50 


10 


5 


41 


34 


37 


63 


33 


48 


10 


6 


40 


31 


35 


64 


44 


54 


10 


7 


45 


38 


4i 


49 


4i 


45 


00 


8 


46 


38 


42 


61 


38 


49 


10 


9 


47 


38 


42 


47 


41 


44 


00 


10 


44 


40 


42 


61 


41 


5i 


8 


11 


47 


40 


43 


67 


47 


57 


00 


12 


47 


42 


44 


50 


47 


48 


10 


13 


47 


41 


44 


58 


39 


48 


10 


14 


47 


39 


43 


58 


39 


48 


10 


15 


47 


35 


41 


68 


36 


52 


10 


16 


46 


36 


41 


61 


4i 


5i 


10 


17 


45 


38 


41 


59 


47 


53 


8 


18 


45 


39 


42 


66 


39 


52 


10 


19 


48 


44 


46 


55 


42 


48 


00 


20 


43 


40 


4i 


61 


40 


5o 


5 


21 


47 


40 


43 


56 


4i 


48 


00 


22 


47 


40 


43 


63 


41 


52 


5 


23 


44 


41 


42 


58 


4i 


49 


7 


24 


46 


4i 


43 


49 


40 


44 


00 


25 


47 


46 


46 


49 


46 


47 


00 


26 


48 


45 


46 


55 


45 


5o 


2 


27 


45 


41 


43 


66 


39 


52 


10 


28 


45 


38 


41 


56 


39 


47 


10 


29 


44 


36 


40 


65 


36 


•50 


10 


30 


45 


40 


42 


66 


45 


55 


10 


31 


45 


38 


4i 


66 


39 


52 


9 


Average, 
















or mean... 


46 


39 


42 


59 


41 


50 





L$6 TEMPERATURE AND VENTILATION. 

FEBRUARY, 1896. 





Night temperature. 


Day temperature. 


Sunshine. 




Degrees F. 


Degrees F. 




Date. 


Readings at 7 A.M. 


Readings at 7 P.M. 


(10 equals 


Feb., 1896. 






sunshine 
all day, 8 
















equals 8-10 




Max. 


Min. 


Mean. 


Max. 


Min. 


Mean. 


of day, etc.) 


I 


45 


42 


43 


55 


42 


48 


00 


2 


50 


40 


45 


69 


45 


57 


IO 


3 


46 


38 


42 


53 


39 


46 


OO 


4 


45 


42 


43 


52 


42 


47 


OO 


5 


45 


42 


43 


57 


44 


50 


00 


6 


49 


46 


47 


56 


47 


51 


OO 


7 


46 


42 


44 


59 


45 


52 


2 


8 


45 


42 


43 


7i 


44 


57 


IO 


9 


46 


41 


43 


44 


42 


43 


OO 


10 


44 


38 


41 


70 


41 


5 5 


IO 


11 


44 


38 


4^ 


56 


39 


47 


IO 


12 


42 


38 


40 


65 


42 


53 


IO 


13 


46 


42 


44 


47 


42 


44 


OO 


14 


47 


38 


42 


57 


39 


48 


IO 


15 


47 


40 


43 


56 


42 


49 


IO 


16 


49 


38 


43 


62 


38 


50 


IO 


17 


42 


35 


38 


63 


37 


50 


IO 


18 


42 


34 


38 


67 


42 


54 


IO 


J 9 


47 


39 


43 


54 


39 


46 


7 


20 


44 


37 


40 


57 


37 


47 


IO 


21 


44 


37 


40 


62 


37 


49 


IO 


22 


45 


39 


42 


62 


42 


52 


IO 


?3 


45 


37 


4i 


60 


45 


52 


5 


24 


46 


41 


43 


63 


43 


53 


IO 


25 


47 


39 


43 


62 


40 


51 


IO 


26 


44 


39 


4i 


55 


4i 


48 


OO 


27 


44 


40 


42 


65 


40 


52 


IO 


28 


44 


40 


42 


60 


41 


5o 


4 


29 


51 


44 


47 


5i 


49 


5o 


GO 


Average, 
















or mean... 


46 


40 


43 


59 


42 


50 









TEMPERATURE. 




*37 






MARCH, 1896. 






Nigh 


t temperature. 


Day temperature. 


Sunshine. 




Degrees F. 


Degrees F. 




Date. 


Readings at 7 a.m. 


Readings at 7 p.m. 


(10 equals 


Mar., 1896. 








sunshine 
all day, 8 
equals 8-10 
















Max. 


Min. 


Mean. 


Max. 


Min. 


Mean. 


of day, etc.) 


1 


51 


47 


49 


62 


44 


53 


OO 


2 


51 


44 


47 


67 


42 


54 


5 


3 


43 


39 


4i 


62 


39 


5o 


7 


4 


44 


38 


4i 


63 


36 


49 


10 


5 


45 


38 


4i 


67 


43 


55 


10 


6 


44 


37 


40 


71 


38 


54 


10 


7 


5i 


44 


47 


64 


44 


54 


5 


8 


50 


4i 


45 


59 


39 


49 


9 


9 


45 


38 


4i 


64 


39 


5" 


5 


10 


44 


39 


41 


55 


40 


47 


5 


n 


43 


39 


4i 


47 


41 


44 


00 


12 


44 


39 


4i 


51 


40 


45 


4 


13 


42 


36 


39 


62 


38 


50 


10 


14 


37 


34 


35 


67 


4i 


54 


10 


15 


48 


38 


43 


61 


36 


48 


5 


16 


45 


39 


42 


56 


41 


48 


00 


17 


44 


41 


42 


61 


43 


52 


10 


18 


43 


34 


38 


60 


42 


5i 


10 


19 


45 


38 


4i 


61 


41 


51 


00 


20 


54 


42 


48 


57 


40 


48 


10 


21 


42 


33 


40 


60 


39 


49 


10 


22 


41 


37 


39 


67 


41 


54 


9 


23 


45 


35 


40 


57 


38 


48 


2 


24 


44 


35 


39 


64 


37 


50 


10 


25 


44 


38 


4f 


67 


40 


53 


10 


26 


5i 


40 


45 


67 


48 


57 


10 


27 


47 


36 


4f 


58 


40 


49 


10 


28 


49 


39 


44 


64 


42 


53 


10 


29 


47 


40 


43 


53 


44 


48 


00 


30 


47 


44 


45 


67 


44 


55 


5 


3i 


49 


44 


46 


80 


47 


63 


10 


Average, 
















or mean.. . 


46 


39 


42 


62 


41 


5, 





138 TEMPERATURE AND VENTILATION. 

APRIL, 1896. 





Night temperature. 


Day temperature. 


Sunshine. 




Degrees F. 


Deg>ees F. 




Date. 


Readings at 7 a.m. 


Readings at 7 P.M. 


(10 equals 


April, 1896. 






sunshine 
all day, 8 
















equals "8-10 




Max. 


Min. 


Mean. 


Max. 


Min. 


Mean. 


otda3^,etc.) 


I 


51 


39 


45 


60 


47 


53 


7 


2 


47 


42 


44 


54 


40 


47 


1 


3 


4i 


35 


38 


67 


38 


52 


5 


4 


42 


36 


39 


55 


4i 


48 


10 


5 


49 


37 


43 


69 


42 


55 


10 


6 


47 


46 


46 


57 


4i 


49 


5 


7 


44 


39 


41 


57 


40 


4» 


00 


8 


43 


39 


41 


65 


42 


53 


10 


9 


44 


37 


40 


47 


45 


46 


10 


10 


50 


42 


46 


68 


44 


56 


10 


11 


50 


39 


44 


70 


50 


60 


8 


12 


5i 


49 


50 


79 


5i 


65 


9 


13 


50 


44 


47 


84 


5o 


67 


9 


14 


60 


49 


54 


85 


60 


72 


10 


15 


67 


58 


62 


93 


65 


79 


10 


16 


7o 


59 


64 


103 


69 


86 


10 


17 


69 


61 


65 


85 


64 


74 


9 


18 


72 


64 


68 


103 


72 


87 


9 


19 


7i 


61 


66 


92 


70 


81 


10 


20 


74 


64 


69 


94 


73 


83 


10 


21 


72 


63 


67 


91 


70 


80 


4 


22 


69 


60 


64 


70 


43 


56 


8 


23 


47 


35 


4i 


80 


57 


68 


10 


24 


60 


41 


50 


85 


59 


72 


9 


, 2 5 


54 


42 


48 


65 


54 


59 


5 


26 


55 


4i 


48 


67 


53 


60 


10 


27 


58 


42 


5o 


73 


58 


65 


10 


28 


59 


40 


49 


79 


60 


69 


5 


29 


64 


45 


54 


85 


65 


75 


9 


30 


57 


43 


50 


84 


58 


7i 


10 


Average, 
















or mean... 


56 


46 


51 


76 


54 


65 





TEMPERATURE. 1 39 

Average Temperatures. 

Night. Day. 

December 48 55 Degrees F. 

January 42 50 

February 42 50 " 

March 42 51 " 

April 51 65 



140 HANDLING AND MARKETING THE CROP. 



CHAPTER VII. 



HANDLING AND MARKETING THE CROP. 

It must be borne in mind that to grow good 
flowers is not the only requirement for success. 
After the flowers are grown they must be 
marketed, and to do this successfully is one of the 
most important matters with which we have to 
deal. Success in this particular respect is in large 
measure dependent upon the character and 
temperament of the man. Some men may be ex- 
cellent growers and yet so lacking in personality 
and adaptability that they cannot deal with their 
customers in a satisfactory manner for any length 
of time. It is very often the case that such men 
blame everything but the right thing for their in- 
ability to get along and for the trouble they have 
not only with the dealers that handle their stock, 
but with the men who work for them as well. 
There is little hope for such people until they can 
be brought to a realization of the fact that the diffi- 
culty is in themselves and not in the things around 
them. Learn, therefore, to adapt yourself to the 
conditions as you find them and things will go 
much easier than when you attempt to mold all 
conditions to your way of thinking. 



STUDYING THE MARKETS. 141 

At the outset it is necessary to study the 
needs of your market and try to meet them as 
fully as possible. When you start you will doubt- 
less be a stranger — at least you will be regarded as 
such from a business point of view, for business is 
not prone to recognize sentiment in any of its 
dealings. You will therefore have to es- 
tablish your ability to grow good stock, 
to grow it regularly, and to be able to 
put it into the hands of your dealer 
when he wants it. This cannot be done in 
one or two years, but at the end of three or four 
seasons, if the work has been carried on in the 
right way, your reputation will have a fair start. 

It is perfectly feasible for a grower who 
knows his conditions and handles his plants 
properly, to tell by the first of October how many 
flowers he can furnish for the following six 
months; that is, he ought to know within two 
or three per cent how many flowers he will 
have for October, November, December, and 
each succeeding month through March. Know- 
ing this, he is in a position to deal in a business- 
like way with the man or men who handle his 
flowers, for it is as important for the dealer 
to know, to a reasonable certainty, what he can 
depend upon as it is for the grower to know 
what he can furnish. Much of the complaint 
which arises about poor prices being received for 
flowers is not because the flowers are not good, 



r 



&fl 



*,»MVx 






41.— Violets bunched for Philadelphia, market, some of the 
Sowers projecting from the bunch. 



MARKETING. 



143 



but it is on account of the spasmodic way in which 
they are sent in and the fact that they have to take 
their chances with a great mass of stock of this 
kind. From the last purchaser or consumer to the 
grower there is a direct connection in this mat- 
ter. Even though flowers are a luxury, customers 
soon learn where the supply is steady and the 
quality high. They recognize this and are willing 
to pay for it. The dealer in time knows the 
growers he can depend upon and can afford to pay 
them a higher price for their stock than the men 
who can give no reliable assurance as to what they 
can furnish from one week to another. It is this 
very fact that emphasizes the importance of grow- 
ing the plants in houses, for if they are in frames 
a snow storm or cold snap may close up every- 
thing for a week or more, and in the meantime the 
demand in the city has not diminished in the least. 

Outside of what has been said, however, there 
are many details that influence the success of dis- 
posing of stock. Every market has its peculiari- 
ties and these must be studied and pandered to. 
We cannot point out these conditions for they vary 
so much and change so often that the matter 
is one that will have to be taken in hand by the 
grower himself. 

The methods of bunching, arranging of the 
leaves, and other matters all vary in different 
sections and we can only describe some of the 
more important ones here. Before proceeding to 




42. — Violets bunched for Washington market, using Princess 
oi Wales leaves. 



MARKETING. 145 

do this, however, it would be well to consider 
more in detail some of the methods of disposing 
of the flowers. The grower may sell his flowers 
direct to the retailer, or he may dispose of them 
through the commission merchant. Each plan 
has its advantages and disadvantages and these 
we shall now point out. No one questions the 
fact that there are plenty of honest, straight- 
forward business men in both lines. There are 
frauds of course, but we meet them everywhere, 
and as soon as one is found out he should be 
dropped. The retailer pays for the flowers 
outright and unless the grower is in position to 
demand something better he will get just half 
the retail price for his stock ; that is, if violets 
are selling at two dollars per bunch of fifty 
flowers the grower will get one dollar, if they 
are selling for one dollar he will get fifty cents. 
This seems like a big margin of profit for the 
retailer, but in reality the risks are so many that 
it is about all he can afford to pay to the grower 
who cannot count on what he can furnish in the 
way of quantity or quality. On the other hand, 
the grower who conducts his business in the 
proper way can make up his schedule of prices at 
the beginning of the season, and the retailer, 
knowing his man and that he can depend upon 
him, can afford to pay him more. In fact, the 
prices in such cases should and will run from 
twenty to twenty-five per cent higher than in 



146 HANDLING AND MARKETING THE CROP. 

the first plan described. On the other hand, the 
grower who sells to the retailer has no oppor- 
tunity as a grower to enlarge his reputation, 
for the purchaser seldom knows who grows the 
stock. The fact is that a large portion of the 
purchasers have the innocent delusion that the re- 
tailer himself grows all the stock he sells. The 
grower, therefore, has no way of extending his 
reputation and if anything should happen to the 
retailer who handles his flowers, he will have to 
start over again with a new man, which is a 
thing not always easy to do. Again, the re- 
tailer must necessarily be more exacting in his 
demands. He has orders to fill at all times of the 
day and every day in the week, and the grower 
must always be willing and ready to fill such 
orders. 

In selling through commission merchants the 
stock is put in competition with others, and its 
merits will always tell in the hands of a fair 
merchant — the only kind it pays to deal with. 
It is true that a commission must be paid, but 
wmere this is done and the flowers are put up 
and delivered properly and in good shape, the net 
returns will equal those* from the retailer. In 
selling through the commission merchant the 
grower has practically unlimited opportunity for 
extending his reputation. Every shipment should 
indicate plainly who the grower is, and the re- 
tailers, who are constantly on the lookout for good 



MARKETING. I47 

material soon learn where they can get it and will 
pay for it accordingly. Furthermore, the grower 
in such cases can manage his business so as to pick 
his flowers at regular times and all of the work 
about the place can therefore be put on a more 
systematic basis. Where a grower is so situated 
that he can reach several good markets within one 
to eight hours it would be best to combine the two 
plans, as may frequently be done. The nearest 
market, which he could reach daily perhaps in 
person, might be given up to dealing with the re- 
tailer, while the commission merchant could be 
used in the more distant market. It is seldom de- 
sirable to sell to more than one retailer in a city, 
for if you have good stock and your merchant is 
doing the proper amount of business he can 
handle without difficulty all you can supply. He 
will furthermore do it better and more to your 
advantage than if you attempt to divide up your 
stock among several retailers. All these matters 
and many others will have to be studied by each 
individual, and if done intelligently the best and 
most profitable methods will soon be learned. 

Coming now more particularly to the details of 
handling the crop, it must be understood that in 
addition to being put up in an attractive manner 
the violet to ■sell at the best price must have other 
qualities. The stems must be long, and the 
flowers of a good color, large, and, most im- 
portant of all, they must be sweet. A violet 



I48 HANDLING AND MARKETING THE CROP. 

without sweetness is not wanted 
anywhere, and a failure to recog- 
nize this leads to more trouble than 
any other one thing connected with 
the work. Violets properly grown are always 
sweet, but all the delicious odor may be lost 
through improper handling. The flower loses 
its odor rapidly as soon as it is removed from the 
plant, and the quicker it reaches the retailer's 
hands the sweeter it will be. Long distance ship- 
ments, therefore, are never satisfactory, for by 
the time the flowers reach their destination they 
have lost nearly all their odor. Ten to thirteen 
hours from the time of picking until the market is 
reached is practically the limit so far as relates to 
holding the sweetness of the flower. It is unwise, 
therefore, to pick the afternoon of one day, and 
after holding the flowers over night, ship the fol- 
lowing morning. It is best, whenever possible, to 
have the flowers picked early in the morning 
and reach market the same morning or not later 
than the middle of the same afternoon. If 
picked late in the afternoon they should be 
shipped that night so as to be in the market 
early the next morning. 

The best times for picking are early in the 
morning and late in the afternoon, that is, between 
six and eight o'clock in the morning and four and 
six o'clock in the afternoon. Different plans are 
adopted in picking and bunching. As a rule, fifty 



BUNCHING. 



149 



flowers are put in a bunch and the bunch is then 
backed up with from twenty to twenty-five leaves 
and tied with violet-colored cord. It is customary 
in most establishments to do this work directly in 
the beds. One or two men pick and tie the 
flowers temporarily in bunches of fifty. Another — 
more expert in shaping- the bunches — unfastens 
the temporary tie and after arranging the flowers 
in symmetrical and compact form, picks and 
adds the leaves and the bunch is then tied perma- 
nently. After tying, the bunches are placed in 
pans of water six inches deep, with cross-bars of 
laths or other strips to hold the flowers and leaves 
out of the water. Placed in water in this way the 
flowers soon stiffen up, and, if kept cool, they lose 
little of their odor. 

Another method, and one we prefer to follow, 
is to pick the flowers and tie them roughly in 
bunches of one hundred. They are then carried 
immediately to a cool bunching room and placed 
in water. When all is ready they can be bunched 
by experienced hands and rapidly sorted at the 
same time. Working in this way two men can 
pick and bunch from a thousand to twelve hundred 
an hour. This does not mean merely throwing 
the flowers together and tying them with a string, 
but it involves the exercise of taste and judgment 
m having a symmetrical, yet compact bunch taste- 
fully surrounded by leaves arranged so as to pre- 
sent a neat margin of green. The question of 



150 II Wlill-. 




BUNCHING. 151 

bunching- is an important one — so important in 
fact that it often makes a big difference in the 
price obtained for the flowers. A little time spent 
in any of our wholesale markets shows this fact 
strikingly. Good flowers will come in poorly 
bunched and with a few little straggling yellow 
leaves sticking out from the center. Such flowers, 
although good in themselves, are apt to bring fifty 
per cent less than those from another source 
tastefully and attractively put up and properly 
packed. Once in a while, too, in careless bunch- 
ing a faded or dirty flower is put in. This invari- 
ably spoils the bunch and is very apt to knock off 
profits on the whole shipment. It would pay 
many growers who complain of poor prices to 
make weekly visits to their markets, and if they 
are at all alert they will soon learn that the 
trouble is not all with the much-abused commis- 
sion man. So important is the matter of bunch- 
ing that the grower himself ought to person- 
ally attend to it, or at least see that every bunch 
receives his rigid inspection before it goes out of 
his hands. 

It is customary in shipping to pack either in 
return or gift boxes. Here also great care must 
be exercised to make the packages attractive, both 
on the outside and inside. The more common 
practice is to use return wooden boxes with 
hinged lids, each box holding from a thousand to 
one thousand five hundred flowers. The bunches 



152 HANDLING AND MARKETING THE CROP. 




44.— Leaves of California violet wired tog-ether 
for bunching- Sowers. 



PACKING THE FLOWERS. 153 

as they are taken from the water have the stems 
wrapped in soft tissue paper. The stems are then 
dipped in water again and the bunches packed 
closely in the box, stems down. When properly 
packed the flowers should not shake or mash. 
Finally the boxes are sealed and are labeled with 
the grower's name and address. 

Before beginning the packing, the boxes are 
lined with newspapers, with oiled paper next to 
the flowers. In winter great care has to be exer- 
cised to keep the flowers from freezing. It is 
often necessary to line the boxes with six or seven 
thicknesses of newspaper in order to keep out 
frost. In some cases felt is used, but newspapers, 
being always at hand, are more convenient, and 
besides are just as serviceable, and in some re- 
spects more desirable. 

In some cases a plan of packing flowers in 
wooden boxes provided with trays is followed. 
Such trays are made about two inches deep and 
have wire netting on the bottom. The mesh of 
the netting must be of sufficient size to allow the 
stems to project through. These make excellent 
shipping boxes, and by arranging two trays in a 
box, from one thousand to twelve hundred flowers 
can be shipped in one package. The same pre- 
cautions to prevent frost injuries must, of course, 
be exercised in this case. At this point it is well 
to emphasize the fact that no matter by what rail- 
road the flowers are shipped, extra precautions 



154 



HANDLING AND MARKETING THE CROP. 



must be taken to keep out frost. Although the 
packages may start out in a well-heated car it 
is always difficult to foresee what will happen to 
them before they reach their destination. It is, 
therefore, necessary to keep a close watch on 
weather conditions and make the packing in ac- 
cordance with what the best judgment is in re- 
gard to the likelihood of a cold snap. 




45.— Leatherette shipping box open. 

Another very satisfactory means of packing 
flowers has been recently devised by Mr. P. H. 
Dorsett. Instead of the wooden boxes, he uses 
ordinary leatherette telescopes, which he has made 
to order. These are eighteen inches long, ten 
inches wide, and seven inches deep. The cover 
fits over the inside box, and the whole is fastened 
by a strap at each end. A handle is put on the 



PACKING THE FLOWERS. 



155 



top so that the package is very easily looked after 
by the expressmen and others who have to handle 
it. A wire frame is made to fit inside the box, 
the meshes of the wire being about half an inch 
square. Ten holes are cut in the wire, each two 
inches square, to take the bunches of violets. The 
frame is made seventeen inches long, nine inches 
wide, and four inches deep. The stems of the 
bunches are inserted into the holes and the five 




46. — Shipping- box showing wire screen lor 
holding bunches. 

hundred flowers packed neatly into the box. These 
packages save considerable expense in express 
charges. They are, of course, returned, and 
with good usage, will probably last for several sea- 
sons. The cost of these telescopes complete, in- 
cluding wire, is about two dollars each. 

In cold weather a second covering, which 
slips over the entire box, is used. In addition to 



156 



HANDLING AND MARKETING THE CROP. 



this quilts made of cotton batting are used, so 
that there is about an inch of frost-proof mate- 
rial protecting the flowers. As in other cases, the 
stems of the violets are wrapped in moist tissue 
paper, and a layer of oil paper, which is put into 
the box before the flowers are inserted, keeps in 
the moisture and odor. It has been found by ex- 




47.— Shipping' box closed and strapped. 

perience that such packages are handled more 
gently by express men, and the flowers in all cases 
reach their destination in excellent shape. Once 
in a while some are lost through frost, but this 
seldom occurs, except through the carelessness of 
the railroad people. 

The gift boxes, which are not returned to the 



PACKING THE FLOWERS. 157 

grower, are usually made of three-eighth inch 
pine. They are deep enough for the bunches in 
an upright position and hold from eight hundred 
to one thousand flowers. After being packed and 
carefully nailed they are wrapped with newspa- 
pers or other coverings to exclude the frost. 
These boxes have some advantages, but they also 
have many disadvantages, chief of which may be 
mentioned the fact that the violets in them never 
make as good a showing as where they are in neat 
packages, such as already described. 

Where the market can be easily reached it is, 
of course, not necessary to exercise the pre- 
cautions above mentioned in getting the flowers 
to their destination. In many cases it is practi- 
cable for the grower to take his stock to market in 
a wagon or to send or take it by train. This is 
especially the case when dealing with the retailer, 
and in such instances it is necessary only to see 
that the flowers are kept from frost and from 
being unnecessarily shaken or jarred. It is 
always best, however, to wrap the stems in moist 
paper, as it has been found by experience that by 
doing this the flowers are kept fresh and sweet 
much longer than they otherwise could be. We 
cannot emphasize too strongly the 
importance of studying the markets. 
You must know what is wanted and 
keep fully posted upon every detail 
in order to command the best prices. 



158 HANDLING AND MARKETING THE CROP. 

One feature of marketing violets may be 
cited here as a suggestion. It is given as a sugges- 
tion for the reason that so far as we know it has 
never been attempted in practice. There seems to 
be no reason why it would not be profitable to 
start what could be called a violet store in al- 
most every city of fifty thousand or more in- 
habitants. In such cases it might not be necessary 
to use an entire storeroom for the purpose. Some 
of the large business houses might furnish the de- 
sired space, or else room could be procured in 
other ways. It would, of course, be important to 
be located in a good business section, the idea 
being to devote the entire work to the sale of 
violets, retail and wholesale. By exercising the 
proper taste in fitting up such a place, taking 
advantage of all new ideas in the matter of 
decorations, boxes, ribbons, etc., there seems to 
be no reason why such an establishment would 
not prove profitable. It should be the aim of the 
proprietor of such a place, of course, to not only 
pander to the wants of customers, but to build up 
and make fads himself. 

Throughout the entire work every precaution 
must be taken to keep the flowers away from all 
foreign odors. A new pine box, for instance, may 
cause trouble. Any objectionable odor, in fact, 
either in the box, the paper, or the room where 
the work is carried on, is apt to be taken up by 
the flowers and to destroy their sweetness. 



DISEASES AND THEIR TREATMENT. 159 



CHAPTER VIII. 



DISEASES AND INSECT ENEMIES. 

No hard and fast lines can be drawn between 
diseases proper and insect attacks. Strictly speak- 
ing, a disease is any derangement of the functions 
of the plant, be it caused by fungous attacks, in- 
sect injuries, environment, or a combination of all. 
For convenience we may discuss the subject under 
two heads, (i) diseases and their treatment, (2) 
insect enemies and methods of combating them. 

DISEASES AND THEIR TREATMENT. 

Probably no other subject connected with 
violet growing has been so much discussed as the 
diseases. This is nothing more than might be ex- 
pected, for the final effects of all proper or im- 
proper methods of cultivation are manifested either 
in the form of health or disease. The plant, in 
other words, is largely what the grower makes it, 
and if he thoroughly understood his work there 
would be little need for writing this chapter. This 
is equivalent to saying that the question is largely 
one of knowing how to make the conditions or en- 
vironment so nearly perfect as to preclude the 
possibility of disease. It must be understood, of 



l6o DISEASES AND INSECT ENEMIES. 

course, that we are dealing with plants in a differ- 
ent way from what they are as we find them in the 
open air, where they are dependent on water, air, 
heat, and light as furnished by nature. Under 
glass man can not only do much toward getting 
just the plant he wants for the conditions he has, 
but can approach the problem from another direc- 
tion and provide the conditions best for his plant. 
Let us make this point perfectly plain, for few 
growers appreciate it or realize the real power be- 
hind it. Theoretically it will be understood that 
if the needs of the plant and the environment were 
exactly balanced, perfect growth would result. 
Going further, it will be seen that if just the right 
conditions could be furnished at all times, and 
the plant through its adaptability were able to meet 
them exactly, growth would not only be perfect, 
but life itself would be continuous. We cannot, 
of course, reach this ideal, but we can strive to ap- 
proximate it, and this is the gist of all that we have 
said in previous chapters on soil, watering, feeding, 
propagation, selection, etc. ; so that when it really 
comes to discussing the diseases there is little ad- 
ditional to say, except to describe the way the 
plant behaves when diseased and to point out the 
best line of action in order to once again restore 
the equilibrium existing between the plant on the 
one hand and environment on the other. 

The really important diseases of the violet are 
comparatively few in number, and in the order of 



i6i 

the injuries they produce may be given as follows: 
(i) spot, or spot disease; (2) wilt, or stem rot; (3) 
nanism, or stuntedness ; (4) scald, or edge burn ; 
(5) oedema, or wart disease; (6) crown rot, and 
(7) root galls, or nematodes. 

Spot, or Spot Disease* This is generally re- 
ferred to as "the violet disease," and is recog- 
nized by growers generally as the most serious 
enemy with which they have to deal. Much has 
been written about it and many theories have 
been advanced as to its cause. There is no 
question that spot can be produced in many ways, 
and may result from the attacks of a number 
of different fungi. The true spot disease, how- 
ever (the one which under certain conditions may 
sweep away an entire field or house of plants in a 
few weeks), has always associated with it a specific 
fungus. The fungus is found wherever there is 
true spot and the spot occurs in this country wher- 
ever the violet is grown. There can be no doubt 
as to the relation of this fungus to the disease, for 
time and time again the connection has been 
proved by careful scientific experiments. The 
fungus itself is an undescribed species of Alter- 
naria, and can be grown, watched, and handled as 
readily as the violet plant upon which it lives. The 
writer has never seen a house, a frame, or a field 
where this fungus was not .present, and plants 
have been examined from Massachusetts to Cali- 
fornia. Often spotted leaves are found on which 



162 



DISEASES AND INSECT ENEMIES. 



even the microscope fails to reveal the presence of 
the fungus externally. If these leaves are placed 
in moist air for twenty-four hours, however, an 
abundant crop of reproductive bodies will be 
found on the diseased areas. 




48. — Spot disease. Early effects on foliage. 

The effects of spot are so well known as to 
require but little description to recognize them. 
The first effects, however, are usually overlooked 
and it is really after the plant has in a measure 



SPOT, OR SPOT DISEASE. 163 

succeeded in protecting itself that the attention of 
the grower is called to the injuries. Ordinarily 
the first indication of a serious attack in a house or 
in a field is a peculiar odor wholly indescribable, 
but which once experienced will never be forgotten. 
It is sickening, and can be approximated by putting 
a lot of violet leaves in water, placing them in a 
warm room, and allowing them to wilt. 

An examination of the leaves when this odor 
is first noticed will reveal numerous greenish 
water-soaked spots, varying in size from a pin 
head to the blunt end of a lead pencil. There 
may be only one or two such spots on a leaf; then 
again the whole leaf and plant may be peppered. 
This is spot, and two or three badly affected plants 
in a house will make themselves known to the 
trained nostrils. Early in the morning, before the 
ventilators are raised, is the time to catch the odor, 
or else at night, after everything has quieted 
down. As the spots enlarge the central portion 
retains at first a pale greenish yellow color, soon 
becoming a pale buff, with a more or less distinct 
margin of umber. Surrounding this is a ring re- 
taining some of the pale yellow green, but almost 
transparent. Immediately around this is a ring 
of a green slightly paler than the surrounding por- 
tion of the leaf, but appearing darker when 
held between the observer and the light. 

Usually when the spots have reached this stage 
the semi-transparent ring either becomes trans- 



164 DISEASES AND INSECT ENEMIES. 




49. — Spot disease on hardy English Violets. 



'«5 

parent, in which case the marginal ring almost 
disappears, or else loses all its green, remaining a 
pale buff and retaining its marginal ring. Often 
several adjacent spots unite and form larger 
ones, but the centers of the uniting spots always 
remain distinct. Spots which have become en- 
tirely transparent except at the center may be in- 
cluded in the enlarging spots, remaining visible 
as transparent areas in the large buff spot. From 
the appearance of the small, sunken areas in the 
center of the spots, many erroneous views as to 
the relation of insects to the disease have arisen. 

A few days of damp, cloudy weather will cause 
the development of reproductive bodies upon 
many of the spots. These appear to the naked 
eye as innumerable blackish, tiny, hair-like points. 
Each spot is capable of producing thousands of 
the spores, and each spore is able, under the proper 
conditions, to germinate and grow, and in so doing 
infect a healthy leaf or a healthy portion of the same 
leaf. The spores, as a matter of fact, are wafted 
about in the air and are constantly settling down 
on the plants, where they only await favorable 
conditions to grow into the leaf and produce other 
spots. We have made experiments which show 
that in ten hours of one night, under ordinary 
conditions existing in a greenhouse, fifty to sixty 
of these spores will settle on a space three inches 
in diameter. Every spore is able to produce a 
spot, and the only reason that they do not do so 



i66 



DISEASES AND INSECT ENEMIES. 



is probably because the conditions are unfavor- 
able for development. 

It is evident from what has been said that the 
more spotted leaves there are in a house the 
more chances there are for infection. Here, there- 





■■■■.■ ■■..■.■■ ■■■■■■ :■.■ ;. 


* .jBH 


w 


* i. ' '. * 




In 


Ugf&k* ->•' 




,■ ■ 


; 


*f -' ? r;;"; 













50. — Spot disease artificially produced. 

fore, is one of the most important points in keep- 
ing the disease in check: Every spot must be 
removed and burned as soon as it is seen, and in 



SPOT, OR SPOT DISEASE. 167 

no case must the diseased leaves be thrown into 
the walk or behind the pipes to rot and spread 
the fungus. When a leaf is badly affected it is 
best to remove it entirely, but when there are 
only a few spots on a leaf, these can be pinched or 
cut out and the rest of the leaf saved. 

It is folly to postpone this work, for every day 
adds to the chances against getting the disease 
under control. We do not advocate the applica- 
tion of any fungicide. We have tried many 
things, including Bordeaux mixture, lime, sulphur, 
ammoniacal solution of copper carbonate, etc., 
but have never yet found any good evidence that 
they are beneficial. 

In addition to the strictest attention in keep- 
ing the plants clean, no effort should be spared to 
furnish the best conditions for growth. Attend 
rigidly to watering, ventilating, and firing. Keep 
all water from the foliage, for wherever the leaves 
stay wet for seventeen to twenty hours succes- 
sively spot is pretty sure to develop. From the 
twentieth of August until the twentieth of Novem- 
ber is the period in which spot is most to be feared 
and watched. If the plants can be successfully 
brought through this period they are practically 
safe, unless unusual conditions arise. 

From what has been said it will be seen how 
important it is to have the plants where they will 
at all times be under control. In frames and in 
fields this is practically impossible, as there they 



105 DISEASES AND INSECT ENEMIES. 

are constantly exposed to rain and dew. Much 
benefit may be derived, however, by shading the 
plants in some way. Rain does not seem to give 
as much trouble as dew. This is probably owing to 
the fact that rain washes the spores from the 
leaves before they have an opportunity to germin- 
ate, while in the case of dew the moisture comes on 
so gradually that the very best conditions are fur- 
nished for the germination and development of the 
fungus. A shading of laths or a screen of any kind 
will often be sufficient to protect the plants from 
dew, and thus in a measure ward off the spot. 
However, it is of the highest importance that the 
plants be under cover as soon after the middle of 
August as possible, for wherever they are left 
outside the danger from infection is very much 
increased. 

Everything that has a tendency to weaken 
the foliage must be avoided. Too much fertilizer 
will often cause a tender growth of leaves, and 
when in such condition spot is very apt to appear 
if several days of warm, cloudy weather come on. 
One of the greatest sources of injury is tobacco in 
the form of smoke. Many growers use tobacco 
for combating insects, but in our experience it is 
found very dangerous and apt to cause serious 
trouble. The nicotine in the tobacco has the 
power of weakening the tissues to such an extent 
that the spot fungus finds it an easy matter to 
infect the foliage. A light fumigation seldom 



169 

produces any injury, but where several fumiga- 
tions are made in close succession damage is al- 
most sure to result. Spraying the leaves with 
tobacco water is apt to produce similar effects, and 
for this reason we have abandoned the use of 
tobacco entirely. 

Much evidence could be adduced to show the 
deleterious action of tobacco, but it is not neces- 
sary to go into details upon this matter, as one or 
two examples will suffice. In one instance green 
aphis was causing considerable trouble in our 
houses, and in order to destroy it we fumigated 
heavily with tobacco for two or three nights. Im- 
mediately following the fumigation, spot appeared 
to an alarming extent, and it required several 
months of hard work and extra precautions to get 
rid of it. We did not realize at the time the con- 
nection of the fumigation with the trouble, but 
afterwards it was brought to our attention in a 
number of other ways, and has been proved many 
times since. 

Finally, it may be said that if careful atten- 
tion has been given to cultural work throughout 
the entire season, little trouble need be apprehend- 
ed from this disease. It is only where the grow- 
er has been careless in certain directions that 
trouble is likely to ensue. Many have the unfor- 
tunate habit of neglecting little details here and 
there, and then when the disease appears making 
a gigantic effort to get rid of it. If attention had 



170 DISEASES AND INSECT ENEMIES. 

been given to minor matters throughout the 
entire season the chances are that the disease 
would not have appeared and that there would 
have been no serious loss in consequence. When 
the disease has reached a severe form, the flowers 
are practically worthless and the only thing that 
can be done is to put forth every effort to get the 
plants into a healthy condition as soon as possible. 
Briefly therefore: Keep the plants at 
all times in a healthy growing con- 
dition. Rigidly destroy all diseased 
parts of the plant. Never apply 
water to the leaves in such a way 
that they cannot dry in from four 
to five hours. Keep the leaves, free 
from dew. Avoid fumigation with 
tobacco, but if tobacco is used, make 
the smoke as light as possible. 

Wilt, or Stem Rot Next in importance to 
spot is wilt, or stem rot. In fact in many sections 
the stem rot causes more trouble than the spot. 
The disease is as a rule confined to the stems, al- 
though it frequently attacks the roots, but it never 
produces the injury there that it does when the 
stems are affected. We have rarely seen a plant 
wholly free from this trouble, although in many 
instances it does not produce any appreciable in- 
jury. This disease is also due to a fungus, which 
lives in the tissues and about which comparatively 
little is known. So far, we know it chiefly through 



171 

its effects, and there can be no doubt as to the re- 
lation of the particular species to the disease in 




51 — Rooted Campbell cuttings, showing effects of Thielavia 

on the roots. Plant on left diseased, plant on 

right healthy. 

question. The fungus is known as Thielavia 
basicola Zopf, and it attacks other plants be- 



172 DISEASES AND INSECT ENEMIES. 

sides the violet. It undoubtedly is able to live at 
certain times on decaying organic matter; in fact, 
it is found in portions of leaves, straw, and other 
materials occuring in the sand and soil. From 
the fact that it occurs on bits of decaying leaves 
it is important to have the propagating sand 
absolutely free from organic matter. Infection 
in a great many cases takes place in the propagat- 
ing bed and soil. The cutting may root readily 
and to the casual observer may appear sound, but 
it is infected nevertheless and later on will show 
the trouble. 

Plants affected with this disease may make a 
good growth throughout the summer and show no 
evidence of trouble until September or perhaps 
October, when they will wilt more or less during 
the warmer portions of the day and revive during 
the night. This may go on for a week or more, 
but finally they wilt completely and die. An exam- 
ination of such plants shows that the main stem 
has been practically girdled by the fungus, and 
that both the water and the food supply have there- 
by been effectually cut off. The alternate wilting 
and reviving of the plants is due to the fact that 
the fungus does its work slowly and thus it requires 
considerable time to completely encircle the stem. 
The fact of the matter is, a plant of this kind is 
probably infected early in its life and for months 
the fungus slowly grows, gradually destroying 
cell after cell until finally the plant collapses. 



WILT, OR STEM ROT. 1 73 

Unquestionably another fruitful source of in- 
fection comes about through the practice of pulling 
off partly decayed leaves from the young plants 
as they are growing. It is, of course, necessary to 
keep the plants clean, but in all cases a knife 
should be used for trimming both leaves and cut- 
tings. If a leaf is pulled off it frequently leaves a 
scar on the stem and this scar offers an excellent 
opening for the fungus, which is likely to be present 
in the soil or on decaying bits of organic matter 
surrounding the plant. If the leaf is cut off, 
leaving a short stem, the wound heals before the 
fungus has an opportunity to gain entrance. 

The method of propagation has an important 
bearing on the trouble and for this reason we have 
been profuse in our statements regarding the im- 
portance of using only vigorous stock. The prac- 
tice of dividing the plants carries some of the dis- 
ease over each year, and it will be seen that if this 
is kept up it is only a question of time when the 
stock will become so weakened as to be practically 
worthless. The advantage of rooting cuttings in 
sand that is absolutely clean is also apparent, for in 
such cases the fungus, which might be in the 
young roots taken from the soil, is eliminated. 
Where the plants are simply divided and even 
where they are removed as offshoots early in the 
spring, the young roots often show the disease. 
The difficulty, however, is most serious where the 
fungus has attacked the stem, for in such cases the 



J 74 DISEASES AND INSECT ENEMIES. 

plant will eventually succumb. When a rootlet is 
once affected it may be destroyed and still the 
working of the plant need not necessarily be 
seriously interfered with. Continuous use of the 
same soil is also a fruitful source of propagating 
the disease. The longer the soil is used, of 
course, the more decaying roots there will be 
present and the more chances for infection 
through such material. 

Summarizing, therefore, the principal ways 
of holding this disease in check are careful at- 
tention to the propagation of stock, extreme care 
as to the kind of sand and soil employed, and the 
exercise of rigid precautions in the matter of 
examination of plants before they are finally set 
in the beds. 

Nanism, or Stuntedness. The dwarfing and 
stunting of a plant is not generally looked upon 
as a disease. Nevertheless, so far as we are 
concerned, it is a true disease because it has 
a marked effect in reducing the income. It is 
not uncommon to find among a number of 
violet plants some which show quite different 
characters from the ordinary, so far as size is con- 
cerned. In such cases the whole plant is more or 
less dwarfed. The leaves are small, the leaf 
stalks are short, and the offshoots which go to 
make up the crown are also short. When 
such a plant blooms the flower stalks are also 
short and the flowers in most cases are small. 



NANISM, OR STUNTEDNESS. 



175 



Of course this dwarfing, or stuntedness, varies 
much in degree. Some plants will not be more 
than one-fourth the normal size, while there will 
be all grades between this and where the dwarf- 
ing is so slight as to be hardly recognizable. 




52.— Plants stunted by strong fertilizer. 

An examination of such plants reveals the fact 
that no external agencies in the nature of fungi 
or insects have caused the trouble. The roots 



176 DISEASES AND INSECT ENEMIES. 

appear to be free from organisms of all kinds, 
and the stems and leaves are also free, except in 
some cases, where red spider may be present, 
but not in sufficient quantity to account for the 
dwarfed growth of the plants. 

This dwarfing or stunting may be brought 
about by a number of causes. Anything in fact 
which has a tendency to check growth may result 
in permanent dwarfing, but it is particularly at 
the time when the plant is young that injury is 
likely to occur. It sometimes happens that the 
cuttings when taken from the parent plant are not 
fully mature, and if rooted in sand or soil at this 
time they will never make as strong or vigorous 
plants as those made from fully ripened wood. 
Again, the wood may become so hard that its 
growth is to a certain extent fixed. Such a cut- 
ting would also be apt to produce a dwarfed plant, 
for the reason that the check which it has received 
can never be entirely overcome. On the other 
hand, the wood may be of the proper nature and 
the cutting in all other respects good, and yet 
in handling after it is separated from the parent 
plant, certain checks may be brought about which 
will result in permanent injury and a dwarfed or 
stunted plant. Too much or too little water in 
the propagating bed may bring about these re- 
sults. Lack of water is often a fruitful source of 
injury in this connection. The plants do not nec- 
essarily have to be dried out to such an extent 



NANISM, OR. STUNTEDNESS. 1 77 

that they wilt, but the gradual withholding of a 
sufficient amount of water has a tendency to cause 
all the growing cells to assume a fixed form, and 
from this they never recover even after they are 
moved into more favorable conditions. After the 
plants are rooted, furthermore, injuries of the 
same kind may occur. 

It may happen that in planting, warm 
weather comes on, and as a result it is difficult to 
keep the plants supplied with a sufficient amount 
of moisture and the roots in consequence will be 
injured. This results finally in a permanent 
check, from which the plant never fully recovers. 
Furthermore, if plants are exposed to too much 
bright sunlight they are apt to become stunted on 
account of the intensity of both heat and light. 
This shows the necessity of some kind of shade 
through the growing season, for the violet 
naturally does not grow in the open, but as a rule 
is found in shady, moist places, away from the 
direct effects of the sun. 

From what has been said in regard to the 
cause of the trouble, the means of preventing it 
will become apparent. Every effort should 
be put forth to keep the plant in a 
thoroughly healthy growing condition 
from the time it is started until it is 
thrown out in the spring. No checks 
of any kind should be allowed, for the more there 
are of these the more likely is the output of 



i 7 8 



DISEASES AND INSECT ENEMIES. 



flowers to be reduced. This only emphasizes the 
statement already made, that diseases are largely 
the result of improper methods of culture, and 
the overlooking of important facts in regard to 
handling the plants. 

Scald, or Edge Burn* - This disease as a rule 
is not serious, although under certain conditions it 
may become quite troublesome and materially 
affect the yield of flowers. It manifests itself 
first by the edges of the leaves turning a yellowish 




53. — Edge bum, brought on by cold soil. 

green. A few days later this color may gradually 
fade out to almost white, and eventually the en- 
tire edge of the leaf will become a papery whitish 
color. The trouble is usually confined to a rim 
running around the outer edge of the leaf. This 
rim varies in width from one-sixteenth to one- 



SCALD, OR EDGE BURN. 1 79 

quarter of an inch. Under exceptional circum- 
stances nearly the entire leaf may be involved, 
and there is then left only a small green area in 
the center. Once the injury is done, there is of 
course no remedy, and all efforts should be made 
to keep the plants in such a condition that the 
trouble cannot be brought on. 

One serious after effect of the difficulty is the 
liability of the plant to be attacked by a number of 
species of fungi. Although fungi are not the 
direct cause of the trouble, there are many species 
which will attack partly dead tissues and from 
them extend into the healthy parts of the leaf. 
It is not uncommon, therefore, to find plants 
affected with this scald, or edge burn, collapsing 
from the effects of fungi which have first attacked 
the diseased portions and through them have 
gained sufficient strength to destroy the unaffected 
parts of the leaves. 

A species of Botrytis is very apt to work on 
such affected parts, especially if the weather is 
damp and the sun does not shine for several days 
in succession. The tissues in such cases get soft 
and slimy and it is very difficult to keep the 
plants clean. 

The trouble may be brought on by a number 
of causes. It is often the result of using strong 
liquid manure, either organic or in the form of 
chemical fertilizers. Such liquids when applied 
to the soil and roots seem to temporarily check the 




54. — Leaves and Bowers injured by Botrytis. 



SCALD, OR EDGE BURN. l8( 

latter to such an extent that they cannot take up 
water or food. In case the sun is warm at such 
times and the light bright the young and tender 
portions of the leaves, namely, the edges, will not 
have sufficient moisture to serve for growth. If 
these conditions continue the moisture stored in 
the cells is used up and then the latter collapse as 
a result. The disease may be brought on by 
allowing the soil to get too cold. It is quite 
common to see plants next to the outer walls 
of the house showing this difficulty. This is 
especially the case where there is no air space be- 
tween the bed proper and the outer wall. The 
cold from the outside is sufficient to stop the 
proper working of the roots, and in consequence 
the parts of tne plant above ground suffer as 
described 

In certain types of heavy soils, that is, soils 
containing too much water, the trouble is likely to 
occur. It must be understood that the roots of 
plants require air as well as water. If all or 
nearly all the air spaces in the soil are filled up 
w T ith water the roots will suffocate and the plants 
in consequence suffer. The difficulty resulting 
from cold soil can easily be overcome for the 
reason that it is rarely found except around the 
edges of the house. A board set in so as to inter- 
vene between the wall and the soil outside is 
often sufficient to prevent the trouble. It is 
better, however, to have two boards, with a space 



l82 DISEASES AND INSECT ENEMIES. 

of four or five inches between. This allows an 
air space and the air in the house is sufficiently 
warm to keep the soil in the beds next to the 
board warm enough for root growth. 

By attending to the conditions mentioned, 
looking carefully after watering, and seeing that 
the soil is not too heavy, little trouble need be 
feared from this disease. 

Oedema, or Wart Disease. This trouble often 
proves quite serious, but is easily kept under 
control by the proper handling of the plants. 
The affected plants show wart-like growths over 
the leaves and these are usually of a brownish 
color. These warty growths vary in size, some 
of them being quite small and others one-eighth 
of an inch long and one-sixteenth of an inch high. 
The corky growths are not confined wholly to 
the leaves. In fact, they frequently occur on the 
leaf stalks and sometimes on the flower stalks 
also. It is found that where these warty 
formations are developed the whole leaf is in a 
peculiar condition. It is brittle and when taken 
in the hand cracks very easily. The leaves, in 
other words, instead of having a live, elastic feel, 
appear to the touch to be dry like a shaving, and 
when bent will break with a cracking noise. 
Wherever a break of this kind occurs the corky 
growth appears in time. The corky formations 
may also develop wherever an insect punctures the 
leaves. The punctures of aphides and the bites 



OEDEMA, OR WART DISEASE. 183 

of spiders cause many of these swellings. When 
the plant gets into this condition it is practically 
unfit for flowering, and when badly diseased it is 




55. — Oedema, or wart disease. 

very difficult to ever get it into proper shape again. 
The trouble is one that is brought on gradually 
by improper relations between the moisture of the 
soil, moisture of the air, ancl the light. 



184 DISEASES AND INSECT ENEMIES. 

Where plants are mulched and the soil kept 
constantly wet the trouble is likely to follow, 
especially if heavy shading- is adopted. Where 
the plant is grown for some time under these 
conditions all of its tissues get into a dropsical 
or oedemic state, and it needs only an injury of 
some kind to cause the formation of the wart-like 
growths. If the conditions are very favorable, in- 
juries are not necessary for the wart-like growths, 
as they will be produced by the plant without 
intervention of anything of this kind. This is 
due to the fact that the plant is really making an 
abnormal effort at growth and the warts are 
nothing more than excessive growth of the cells 
at particular points. This trouble seldom occurs 
in houses properly lighted and ventilated. In 
underground pits and in outdoor frames where 
heavy shading is used it is apt to occur, especially 
if the practice of mulching is adopted. 

By paying proper attention to light, ventila- 
tion, and watering, little or no difficulty is experi- 
enced from the trouble. In case it is seen that 
plants are becoming oedemic it will be necessary 
to at once modify the surroundings to such an 
extent as to admit more light to the leaves and 
more air to the soil. It will not do, however, to 
bring about these changes too rapidly. Light 
should be gradually given and the amount of 
water added to the soil should be slowly dimin- 
ished. If the change is too abrupt serious 



CROWN ROT. 



I8 5 



consequences may result, as the plant having been 
grown under such abnormal conditions is not able 
to withstand the unusual exposure to bright light 
and dry soil which the sudden change might bring- 
about. 




56.— Crown rot. 

Crown Rot. This trouble is very apt to 
occur after the opening of the blooming season, 



1 86 DISEASES AND INSECT ENEMIES. 

especially if the crowns are heavy and too much 
water is used for syringing or other purposes. It 
is often found in houses made of sash, where the 
drips keep the crowns of the plant constantly wet 
for days at a time. In such cases the inner or 
youngest leaves of the crown become softened 
and through the action of several species of fungi 
are in a short time reduced to a soft, slimy mass. 

The trouble is sometimes quite serious, as all 
the young inner growth is destroyed and the 
flower «buds of course perish with them. The 
difficulty, as already pointed out, is brought 
about largely by the improper use of water. Of 
course in houses where there are many drips it is 
impossible to keep the crowns dry. As soon as 
the trouble is noticed, however, the diseased 
leaves should be cleaned out as rapidly as possible, 
the remaining leaves pushed apart, and the crowns 
opened so as to admit light and air. Where the 
crowns are very heavy some advantage may result 
by trimming out part of the leaves, but this of 
course will more or less interfere with the flower- 
ing of the plant. 

A mixture of equal parts of air-slacked lime 
and flowers of sulphur is frequently beneficial in 
cases of this kind. The two materials should be 
thoroughly mixed and thrown into the crown with 
considerable force so as to reach the rotting parts. 
Lime alone is beneficial, but the sulphur has a 
tendency to destroy the fungi present and in a 



ROOT GALLS, OR NEMATODES. 187 

measure to check the growth of other organisms. 
In properly constructed houses, where the drip is 
reduced to a minimum, little difficulty is ever 
experienced from this disease. The trouble is, of 
course, much more apt to be serious where the 
plants are over-grown, and for this reason the 
directions given in regard to proper time of plant- 
ing and the handling of the plants should be 
closely followed. 

Root Galls, or Nematodes. Although this 
disease is caused by a minute parasitic worm, it is 
classified with diseases for the reason that it affects 
the entire plant and could not be properly treated 
under the heading of insects. Plants badly in- 
fested with nematodes are apt to show a dwarfed 
growth, the leaves being small and the leaf stalks 
and flower stalks short. This is what might be 
expected from the fact that these minute parasites 
attack the roots and through their action on them 
cat off the food supply. The infested plants upon 
being removed from the soil show on the rootlets 
innumerable small nodules, varying in size from 
a pin-head to a large pea. Although nematodes 
are considered by some writers as a great menace 
to violet growing, we have never seen any serious 
injury produced by them. In fact, our experience 
leads us to believe that nematodes, instead of 
being actually injurious, are more apt to be bene- 
ficial. We cannot speak of course of the effects 
of nematodes where the soil has been allowed to 



155 DISEASES AND INSECT ENEMIES. 

become full of them through neglect and other 
causes. Where the soil has not been properly 
handled or where it is allowed to remain in use 
for several years, nematodes are very apt to infest 




57. — Nematodes, or root galls. 

it to such an extent as to become a serious pest. 
Ordinarily, however, where the soil is changed 
every year and where new plants are put in each 
season the nematodes are not sufficiently numer- 



ROOT GALLS, OR NEMATODES. 1 89 

ous to really prove serious. It often happens 
that some of the best flowering plants will show 
quantities of nematodes on the roots at the close 
of the season. So far as appearances go, such 
plants show no indication whatever of disease, 
and if it were not for the effect of the nematodes 
it is very probable that vegetative growth would 
have been so excessive as to have interfered seri- 
ously w T ith the formation of flower buds. We 
look, therefore, on nematodes as in a measure 
being able to keep the proper balance between 
root growth and leaf growth. They act partly as 
root primers, so to speak, and by their action 
have a tendency to cause the plants to throw 
their energy towards flowering rather than towards 
leaf production. We would not have it inferred 
from this that we advocate encouraging the 
attacks of nematodes, but we do not believe it 
desirable to go to any great expense, such as 
steaming the soil, for the purpose of holding them 
in check. If the soil is properly handled and 
allowed to freeze thoroughly once or twice in the 
early part of the season, a large number of the 
nematodes are probably destroyed. However, no 
matter what action of this kind is followed there 
will always be some present, but they need not 
cause any serious uneasiness. 

We have experimented with sterilized soil 
and have been able to grow plants practically free 
from the worms. Such plants made a most 



I90 DISEASES AND INSECT ENEMIES 

remarkable growth and the leaf development was 
so great that it seriously interfered with the pro- 
duction of flowers. Furthermore, we found that 
the plants were making such rapid growth and 
were becoming so tender and soft at the approach 
of the spot season that great difficulty was experi- 
enced in warding off this disease. On the whole, 
this question may be summed up by saying that 
by proper attention to the care of the soil and of 
the plants little trouble need be apprehended 
from nematodes, and it will not be necessary to 
adopt the expensive method of sterilizing the soil. 

INSECTS AND OTHER PESTS. 

Red Spider* This little pest, which is really 
not a spider, but a mite, is one of the worst 
enemies with which violet growers have to deal. 
It is present at all seasons of the year and is 
ready at all times to begin its destructive work if 
allowed to do so. It is difficult to estimate the 
damage these mites do to plants, for the reason 
that it is seldom that any plants are entirely free 
from them and no fair comparisons can therefore 
be made. Ordinarily when there are only a few 
of the mites present the plants show no external 
evidence of their attacks. As the numbers in- 
crease, however, the leaves gradually become 
yellowish and dwarfed, and eventually the whole 
plant succumbs, unless action is taken to rid it of 
the pest. 



RED SPIDER. 191 

Cuttings or young rooted plants are especially 
liable to be seriously injured by spider. This is 
particularly true in spring after the growing 
season starts. The mites multiply rapidly at this 
time, and unless the plants are carefully watched 
they will soon be so badly infested that it will be 
exceedingly difficult to restore them to a normal 
condition. In fact, it is questionable if 
a plant once badly infested with spiders 
can ever be restored to the normal 
state. The mites by their action slowly reduce 
vitality, and not only one, but all functions of the 
plant are probably more or less affected by them. 
In this way the whole nature of the plant is more 
or less changed as it is really suffering from a 
slow starvation. It will be seen, therefore, that 
the ultimate effects will be a checking or stunting 
of some kind, and, as already pointed out, every- 
thing of this nature must be carefully avoided. 

On plants which have been grown the entire 
winter in a house or even in frames, the mite 
sometimes develops to such an extent in late 
spring as to entirely destroy all growth. Millions 
of spiders will be found on the foliage, and their 
webs, which are rarely seen under ordinary con- 
ditions, stretch from plant to plant and spiders of 
all sizes will be found passing rapidly over them 
and congregating in swarms like bees. 

An examination of the leaves of violets 
infested with spiders, shows mites of various sizes 



192 



DISEASES AND INSECT ENEMIES. 



and the eggs from which they are hatched will 
also be found present in varying numbers. Ordi- 
narily the eggs are spherical and almost colorless. 
Under a slight magnification they appear like 




58. — Nozzle used in spraying plants for the destruction of 
red spider. 

little globules of dew, but upon touching them 
they are found to have relatively firm walls. The 
eggs are not hatched for eight or ten days after 
being deposited, the length of time depending in 



RED SPIDER. 193 

a large measure on warmth and other surround- 
ings. When newly hatched the spiders are very 
light in color. In fact, it is difficult to distinguish 
them from the masses of web and the yellowish 
portions of the affected leaf. As the spiders 
grow older they molt several times, and finally 
attain full size, when their color is more or less 
yellowish red. The color, however, varies greatly 
and it is seldom that any lot on two different 
plants are found to be exactly alike. 

The mites are exceedingly difficult to kill and 
for this reason great care must be exercised in 
not allowing them to attain sufficient numbers to 
seriously check the growth of the plants before 
putting forth efforts to destroy them. It is the 
general belief among florists that spiders do not 
thrive in moist air, but this does not seem to be 
the case, for if proper conditions are present moist 
air alone is not sufficient to hold them in check. 

Tobacco, either in the form of smoke or ap- 
plied in other ways, has little effect upon the 
mites themselves and probably does not injure 
the eggs in the least. Fumigation, therefore, is 
useless in this connection. What is true of 
tobacco will also hold good with other poisonous 
gases, such as cyanide gas, which is now coming 
into general use for greenhouse work. When we 
first commenced using the cyanide gas we were 
hopeful that it would prove valuable in destroying 
spider. It is true that spiders subjected to the 



194 DISEASES AND INSECT ENEMIES. 

fumes of this gas are stupified for a time, but they 
soon recover and in a few hours are as active 
as ever. 

Soaps of all kinds are effective in destroying 
both old and young mites, and also kill a large 
proportion of the eggs. On account of the diffi- 
culties in using soap, however, it cannot be 
generally recommended, but for certain pur- 
poses, which will be referred to later, it will 
be found very useful. 

Water applied to the foliage is the only 
effective remedy that can be depended upon for 
this pest. It must be applied, however, with con- 
siderable force, the object being to wash both 
mites and eggs from the leaves. To do this 
successfully and at the same time not injure the 
plants and not bring about conditions favorable for 
other diseases, such as spot, is a difficult problem. 
The chief point in this work is to keep the spiders 
so thoroughly in check that by the time the plants 
have attained nearly their full growth in the fall, 
that is, by the middle of September, spraying can 
be entirely stopped, and from that time on during 
the winter little or no water need be applied to 
the foliage. We have found that where spiders 
are washed from the leaves a certain per cent of 
them get back. Many are killed by the direct 
crushing action of the water, and thousands not 
destroyed in this way are knocked off into the soil 
and probably starve to death before they can 



RED SPIDER. 



J 95 



again reach food. From two to three per cent of 
all mites on the leaves manage to get back, how- 
ever, and this shows the importance and necessity 
of constant attention in the matter of spraying. 

If the young plants are perfectly free from 
spider when set out in the spring it is compara- 
tively easy to keep them so by spraying from two 
to three times a week for the rest of the growing 
season. However, if cuttings are rather badly 
infested with spider we recommend their treat- 
ment before planting with a solution of soap. 
We have tried many soaps but the best results 
have been obtained from ivory soap, used at the 
rate of one five cent cake to six or seven gallons of 
water. The soap should be shaved up with a 
small plane and dissolved with about one gallon of 
hot water, and then sufficient cold water added to 
make the quantity mentioned. By using a small 
hand spraying pump, which can readily be 
purchased in the market for four dollars and fifty 
cents to five dollars, the leaves can be thoroughly 
wetted with the soap solution at a comparatively 
slight expense in the matter of material. Five 
gallons, in fact, will be sufficient to treat three or 
four thousand cuttings, provided they are in flats 
and are easily within reach. Allow the soap to 
remain on the plants two or three hours, then 
thoroughly syringe with clear water. This treat- 
ment should be repeated two or three times, until 
the spiders and eggs have been destroyed. When 



196 DISEASES AND INSECT ENEMIES. 

used in this way the soap has no deleterious effects 
on the plants and has a tendency to protect and 
clean the foliage much better than any preparation 
we have used. Tobacco water is sometimes used 
for this purpose, and a tobacco solution made from 
an extract is also applied. We do not recommend 
these preparations, however, because they have a 
tendency to weaken the foliage. 

It must be understood that it is not safe to 
use strong soaps, such as whale oil and soft soaps, 
because they are very apt to injure the foliage and 
are not so active in killing the mites as the ivory 
soap. Spiders treated with ivory soap die in one 
or two minutes after the solution is applied. 
When viewed under a microscope full grown 
spiders show anxiety to get rid of the soap as soon 
as it reaches them. This lasts only for a few 
seconds, however, and then the spider quickly 
folds its legs beneath itself and for a few seconds 
there may be some violent movements of the legs 
and other parts of the animal. Even if moved to 
fresh water a few minutes after soap is applied 
they seldom revive, which shows how effectually 
the soap operates. 

For cuttings, therefore, the soap solution as 
recommended will be found exceedingly valuable. 
We do not consider it advisable to continue the 
application of soap throughout the entire season, 
for the reason that we believe it has a tendency 
to interfere with growth. After the plants are put 



RED SPIDER. 197 

out, however, spraying with water should be reg- 
ularly practiced, as before described, and for this 
purpose it will be found desirable to devise some 
means of getting on the minimum amount of water 
with the maximum amount of force. It will re- 
quire a pressure of at least twenty to twenty-five 
pounds to prove effective against spider. To get 
the water on, however, without drenching the beds 
is often a rather difficult matter, and for this rea_ 
son we have devised a simple spraying tip, which 
is found to answer the purpose admirably. This 
spraying tip may be attached to the end of a three- 
quarter inch hose, or where the beds are wide we 
prefer to use a short lance made of light brass pipe. 
This lance is one-quarter inch in diameter and 
usually about two feet long. The spraying tip is 
fastened to one end, while the other end is provided 
with a connection to screw on to the three-quarter 
inch hose. The tip itself consists merely of a 
piece of brass flattened out at the end and provided 
with a narrow slit, through which the water is 
forced. This slit is so adjusted that the w T ater 
issues through it in much the shape of a gas flame, 
but, of course, very much larger. At a distance 
of twenty to twenty-five inches from the end of 
the slit the water breaks up into innumerable fine 
drops, which are thoroughly effective in washing 
the spiders from the leaves and not injuring the 
latter in the least. With a little practice the beds 
can be gone over quickly with this device, and 



I98 DISEASES AND INSECT ENEMIES. 

the under- side of the leaves may be so thoroughly- 
washed that the spiders will have little opportu- 
nity for development. If this practice is followed 
throughout the growing season the plants will 
be able to go into winter quarters practically free 
from the pest, and will, therefore, require little 
additional work of this kind during the winter. 
Whenever it is necessary to spray during the 
winter, the work must be done" on a bright day so 
that the plants will dry off in a few hours. Never 
spray later than eleven o'clock, otherwise the 
crowns will remain wet during the night. 

Green and Brown Aphides* Every violet 
grower is probably familiar with these insects. 
Up to six or eight years ago the green aphis 
was about the only one that ever proved trouble- 
some. Whether there is more than one species 
of green aphis which attacks the violet is not 
known. They can be found nearly always, and 
it requires only slight neglect for them to soon 
become exceedingly troublesome. The green 
aphis, with which every grower is generally 
familiar, attacks both leaves and flowers, but it is 
particularly the latter that are likely to show the 
most serious effects of the pest. Ordinarily, when 
the leaves are infested the aphis is first found on 
leaves which have begun to fade. The yellow 
leaves harbor the insect, but it soon gains sufficient 
strength, if neglected, to spread to perfectly 
healthy leaves and from them to the flowers. In 



APHIDES. 199 

watching- plants, for the green aphis, therefore, 
it is always best to keep a close eye on the yellow- 
ish leaves as they are picked off. If the green fly 
is found upon them immediate steps must be taken 
to check it before it has increased sufficiently to 
spread to other parts of the plant. 

When the fresh and growing leaves become 
infested, and when it spreads to the flowers and 
young buds, the matter becomes serious and heroic 
efforts will be required to get rid of the pest. It 
is when the insect turns its attention to the flower 
buds and flowers that the most serious trouble 
results. The aphis crawls into the very young 
buds and through its punctures and the suck- 
ing of the juice the flower is : very much dis- 
torted and is made practically worthless. Two 
or three of these insects in a bud will so in- 
jure it that the flower will be valueless. When 
they occur in great numbers and the buds and 
flowers are badly infested the former have a 
speckled or spotted appearance quite unlike what 
they should be. Instead of the beautiful mauve 
color, the petals have whitish blotches scattered 
over them, and this detracts greatly from their 
appearance and makes them practically worthless 
so far as selling is concerned. 

Five or six years ago the brown aphis began 
to attract attention among violet growers. This 
insect is reddish brown in color and resembles 
somewhat the one which attacks the chrysanthe- 



200 DISEASES AND INSECT ENEMIES. 

mum. We first observed the insect three or four 
years ago on some plants obtained from Massachu- 
setts. Soon after this we saw it in other localities, 
and now it seems to be pretty generally distri- 
buted throughout the violet growing regions of 
the East. This aphis seems to be a new form — at 
least no record can be found of anything like it 
attacking violets in this or other countries. Be 
this as it may, the effects of the insect are serious. 
In fact it is a more formidable foe than the green 
one. Instead of attacking the older and more 
resistant leaves, the brown aphis as a rule will be 
found on the most tender growth just as it unfolds 
from the crown. In consequence of this habit of 
the insect the plants are severely crippled. The 
young leaves are attacked as fast as they appear, 
and the plants in consequence are so thoroughly 
checked and stunted that little or no growth takes 
place. It will be found at all seasons of the year, 
but is particularly active through the growing 
season, that is, from about the middle of May 
until the middle of October. It seems to be more 
troublesome in houses than in the open air or in 
frames, but this may be accounted for perhaps by 
the fact that the insect is less liable to the attacks 
of natural enemies under glass and has a better 
opportunity, therefore, of propagating itself. 
Like the green aphis, it also attacks the flowers, 
but seems to prefer the foliage, and as a rule is 
confined to it. Both the green and the brown 



APHIDES. 20I 

aphis are more or less injured by cold, but still they 
cannot be entirely killed by freezing, as we have 
reason to know from experience in growing- plants 
in frames, where the temperature fell as low as 
six or eight degrees below zero. In such cases 
many aphides were destroyed, but enough sur- 
vived to start a new brood as soon as the weather 
became favorable. 

The almost universal remedy against aphides 
under glass has, up to the past few years, been 
tobacco. Fumigation has been the principal 
method followed, the ordinary tobacco stems 
being used for the purpose. Probably in some 
sections fumigation with tobacco will continue to 
be used, as it is undoubtedly the simplest and 
cheapest method of combating these pests. 

We have already pointed out, however, the 
serious objections to the continued use of tobacco. 
This is especially the case in certain regions where 
the use of tobacco is more apt to bring on 
spot than in other sections. Where it is necessary 
to use tobacco, great care must be exercised, and 
the grower should never wait until the insects 
have accumulated in numbers, otherwise the 
smoke will have to be made so strong that injury 
to the plant in one form or another is sure to fol- 
low. Light fumigations, given at regular inter- 
vals, will probably hold both kinds of aphides in 
check, but aside from the objections already 
mentioned there are others of a serious nature 



202 DISEASES AND INSECT ENEMIES. 

which must also be considered where tobacco is 
used. As everyone knows, the odor is exception- 
ably disagreeable and undesirable. This is par- 
ticularly the case in violets, which readily take up 
many foreign odors and never fully recover from 
the effects. It is therefore found undesirable to 
pick violets in a house which has been recently 
fumigated with tobacco. In fact at least a week 
should elapse after fumigation before any picking 
is done. These reasons, together with others 
which have been given, have prompted us to 
practically abandon the use of tobacco in every 
form for aphides and insects of this nature. 

A good deal has been written about the use 
of hydrocyanic acid gas for this work. This has 
been used for a number of years in fumigating 
plants in the open air, but it is only recently that 
it has come into general use for greenhouse pur- 
poses. Through the efforts of Messrs. Albert F. 
Woods and P. H. Dorsett, who have been associ- 
ated with the writer in work on plants under glass, 
experiments were inaugurated several years ago 
to test the value of this gas in the greenhouse. 
At this time we were having serious difficulty 
with our violets from the attacks of aphides, and 
it was a question as to whether it would not be 
necessary to either give up growing the crop or 
adopt some method of getting rid of the pest 
other than those usually followed. After many 
experiments it was found that the gas could be 



FUMIGATION WITH CYANIDE GAS. 203 

used with perfect safety for fumigating violets. 
Moreover, the flowers a few hours after the gas 
had been used were perfectly sweet and showed 
no effects whatever from the action of the gas. 
From time to time various changes were made as 
to the methods of application, until finally the 
practice has developed into a comparatively simple 
operation, which may be described as follows : 

In all cases where fumigation with this gas 
is to be followed it is necessary to first determine 
accurately the cubic contents of each house. 
The determination of the cubic contents of the 
house while in itself a comparatively simple 
problem, has, in the eyes of many growers, diffi- 
culties which they are not willing to undertake. 
The cubic contents can be determined by a com- 
paratively simple mathematical calculation, but 
perhaps the easiest way is by a method recently 
described by the writer in the Florists' Exchange* 
This method involves nothing more difficult than 
the mere counting of a number of squares, and 
from an examination of the accompanying illus- 
tration the simplicity of the method will become 
apparent. Procure from a stationery store or art 
supply store some cross-section paper, such as 
represented in the figure. In this particular case 
squares of three sizes are shown, the largest being 
one-half inch, the next one-fourth inch, and the 
smallest one-sixteenth inch square. The one- 

*Florists' Exchange, Vol. II, No. 5. 



2 04 



DISEASES AND INSECT ENEMIF.S 




FUMIGATION WITH CYANIDE GAS. 205 

fourth inch squares may represent feet. Now 
determine the dimensions of the house, that is, 
the length, width, height to ridge, and height 
on sides, and make a sketch as shown, each 
square, or one-fourth inch, representing one square 
foot. This particular house, it will be seen, is 
eighteen feet (eighteen squares) wide, twelve 
feet to the ridge, six and one-half feet high at 
the back, and four and one-half feet high in 
front. The ridge stands five feet from the 
back wall, as shown in the sketch. After the 
lines are drawn, simply count the squares in- 
closed, and the number of squares will be the 
number of square feet. The parts of squares, 
that is, where a line divides a square, can be 
easily determined by counting the smallest squares 
or by the eye, and by adding these fractions 
of squares together the number of whole squares 
may be readily found. After the number of 
square feet is obtained it is only necessary to 
multiply this by the length of the house in feet 
and the result will be the cubic contents. For 
example, supposing the house in question is one 
hundred feet long, it contains one hundred and 
fifty and one-half squares, or square feet, and one 
hundred and fifty and one-half multiplied by one 
hundred equals 15,050 cubic feet. The whole 
operation requires less time than it takes to 
describe it and will apply of course to a house of 
any shape or size. It may be added that if the 



206 DISEASES AND INSECT ENEMIES. 

cross-section paper cannot be obtained readily 
the sections or squares can be laid off with a 
rule and lead pencil and practically the same 
results obtained. In any event, it is only neces- 
sary to get an accurate outline drawing of the 
section of the house and by projecting this over 
squares as indicated the number of square feet in 
the section can be readily determined. 

The gas is made by combining potassium 
cyanide (ninety-eight per cent pure) and commer- 
cial sulphuric acid. It has been found by experi- 
ment that for violets 0.15 of a gram (one gram 
equal fifteen and a half grains avoirdupois) of 
ninety-eight per cent cyanide of potassium will be 
required for each cubic foot of space in the house, 
and from these data it is easy to figure out the 
exact amount of cyanide of potassium wanted for 
a given amount of greenhouse room. When the 
cubic contents have been determined and 0.15 of 
a gram of the cyanide of potassium has been 
weighed out for each cubic foot, the next step is 
to crush all the large lumps and place the cyanide 
in paper bags so as to have it ready for use 
in the house. We usually use two bags, one 
within the other, for the purpose, in order to 
insure perfect safety. For a house one hundred 
feet long and twelve feet wide there should 
be provided two ordinary earthenware jars, each 
holding about two gallons. These jars should 
be placed in the w r alk, about equal distances apart 



FUMIGATION WITH CYANIDE GAS. 207 

and equal distances from each end of the house. 
As soon as the proper quantities have been put in 
the bags, the latter are taken to the jars and then 
a string is arranged so that each jar will have 
suspended directly over it one of the bags con- 
taining the cyanide. The end of the string is 
then run out to the door and can be easily tied so 
as to hold the bags in position just above the jars. 
The string can be easily run through screw eyes 
fastened to the sash bars or by some other method 
which will readily suggest itself to the operator. 
Everything being in readiness pour enough cold 
water into the jars to about cover the amount of 
potash in the bags. As soon as the water is 
poured in bring the acid forward and slowly add 
this to the water until steam begins to 
rise. When the steam commences to show stop 
pouring in the acid and arrange the next jar in 
the same way. While doing this it is best to 
have the bags of cyanide rest on the ground. The 
water and acid now being ready readjust the bags 
in their proper places so that they will drop 
directly into the jars when the string holding them 
is loosened. The operator now goes to the door 
and by taking hold of the string allows the bags 
to drop directly into the jars. The door is then 
closed and in about a minute (sometimes less) 
the violent action of the chemical changes can be 
heard. No attempt whatever must be 
made to enter the houses at this time, 



208 DISEASES AND INSECT ENEMIES. 

for by doing- so death would unques- 
tionably result in a few seconds. Pre- 
vious to setting off the gas all the ventilators must 
be put down, and if the house is loose it is well to 
sprinkle the roof with water. Arrangements 
must be made, however, for opening some of the 
ventilators from the outside. From the 
time the gas begins to generate it should be 
allowed to remain twenty minutes in the house 
and then the doors and ventilators should be 
opened from the outside and air freely ad- 
mitted. When opening the ventilators from the 
outside take care not to breathe the gas. The 
house should not be entered under any circum- 
stances for half an hour, for it will take at least 
that time for the fumes to be driven out. 

Unless the aphides are very abundant it will not 
be necessary to use the gas more than once a month 
during the growing season. However, the fumi- 
gation should not be done at regular periods, but 
should be carried on whenever there is sufficient 
evidence that aphides are increasing in undesira- 
ble numbers. This treatment never fails to do 
the work when proper care is taken, and there is 
no injury whatever to foliage or flowers. 

Cut Worms. The leaves of violets are some- 
times attacked and injured by cut worms. This 
is especially the case in late spring after the new 
plants have been put out. The cut worms, as a 
rule, are more troublesome in houses where sash 



CUT WORMS. 209 

are removed or where the sides are open. There 
appear to be several species of these insects, and 
as the worms are voracious eaters, they can in 
a short time do considerable damage to small 
plants. It is not uncommon to find young plants 
having only six or eight good leaves, completely 
cut down by these pests. Sometimes the worms 
instead of cutting off the leaves will cut off the 
stems, and of course in such cases the plant is 
ruined. The worms appear to be the same kind 
as those which feed upon grasses. In fact where 
grass is allowed to grow around the houses and in 
the beds, the insects are, as a rule, much more 
apt to be troublesome. The worms are often 
found an inch and a half in length, and it is 
seldom that they can be seen on the plants in 
the day time, unless in cloudy weather or in dark 
places. 

About all that can be done in the way of 
holding this pest in check is to watch the plants 
carefully, and at the first evidence of injury to 
search for the worms and detroy them. As a rule, 
if the worms are not found on the plant, they will 
be discovered just beneath the surface of the 
ground near the stem. By digging in the soil 
around the plants, the insect can be brought from 
its hiding place and destroyed. In closed houses, 
where fumigation is practiced, the cut worms are 
of course destroyed, but in the field and in frames 
the collection and destruction of the pest, as 



2IO DISEASES AND INSECT ENEMIES. 

already stated, is about all that can be recom- 
mended. The fact that these worms live upon 
grasses shows the importance of keeping the beds 
perfectly clean, and also the importance of keeping 
the ground perfectly clean of grass for a consider- 
able distance around the frames or the beds if the 
latter are made in the field. So far as our observa- 
tions go, the moth, which deposits the eggs from 
which the cut worms are hatched, seldom if ever 
selects the violet. The eggs are more likely to be 
deposited on grasses and other plants, and from 
these the worms reach the violet. It frequently 
happens that growers are neglectful about keep- 
ing old beds and the corners of houses free from 
weeds and grass. It is not uncommon to allow 
grass and weeds to grow up behind the beds in 
some cases, and it is just such places that harbor 
worms. Rigid attention should therefore be given 
to cleanliness, which is as important in this case 
as in any others mentioned. 

Sawfly* The leaves of violets during the 
growing season, that is, from June to September, 
are sometimes injured by a small caterpillar-like 
worm, which has been determined by the Ento- 
mologist of the United States Department of 
Agriculture to be the larva of a species of saw- 
fly. This insect sometimes does considerable 
damage by cutting the leaves, giving the whole 
plant a ragged appearance. The larva of the 
sawfly seems to prefer cool, shady places, and, as 



GALL FLY MAGGOTS. 21 T 

a rule, is found near the sides of the house or in 
the shade of the gutters. Picking and destroying 
the insects is the only satisfactory means of get T 
ting rid of them, except where fumigation with 
the cyanide gas is practiced. In such cases this 
insect, together with many other kinds, will be 
effectually destroyed. It sometimes happens that 
the eggs from which the sawfly larva are hatched 
are deposited on the young plants while they are 
still in flats or before they have been transplanted 
to permanent beds. It will often be found advan- 
tageous in such cases to apply some material that 
will destroy the eggs and young larvae before the 
plants are set where they are to stand. For this 
purpose there is nothing better than the ivory 
soap solution, the same as recommended for red 
spider. It can be applied with a hand spraying 
pump, or the solution can be made up and kept in 
an ordinary water pail, and the plants as taken up 
can have their stems and leaves dipped. This, 
however, is not as satisfactory as spraying, and is 
resorted to usually only where cuttings are lifted 
directly from sand and there is no soil adhering. 

Gall Fly Maggots. We have never had any 
difficulty with this pest, but in some sections of 
the "country it has occasioned serious damage. 
The maggot is very small and is yellowish white 
in color. It is found, as a rule, in the youngest 
leaves as they push out from the crown of the 
plant. The affected leaves as they come out are 



212 DISEASES AND INSECT ENEMIES. 




GALL FLY MAGGOTS. 213 

badly curled and the maggots are found only 
where the leaf is curled. The maggots are so 
abundant that all the leaves become curled in 
this way, and as a result the whole plant is 
seriously stunted. 

The effects of the maggots are to seriously 
dwarf the growth of the plants and to practically 
stop the development of the flower buds. In 
many cases where the affected leaves are pulled off, 
the side crowns will start, but they soon become 
infested with the maggot, The maggot is the 
larva of a small gall fly, which looks like a minia- 
ture wasp. It is not uncommon to find maggots 
in the soil, and from the latter they seem to be 
able to reach the young leaves in some way. 
Whether they pass from the leaves to the soil and 
there attain the adult state we are not able to say, 
and so far as we know, this point has not been 
determined. Our observations lead us to believe 
that the pest is much more apt to occur in localities 
where proper attention has not been paid to mix- 
ing the soil and to drainage On low, heavy, wet 
ground the pest is much more apt to be injurious 
than where good soil is at hand and where drain- 
age is perfect. Certain kinds of manures seem 
to favor the development of the maggot. Whether 
it is capable of living in the manure, or on plants 
alone has not been determined, so far as we are 
aware. It seems to be a fact, however, that where 
manure is not clean, that is, where it is mixed 



214 DISEASES AND INSECT ENEMIES. 

with refuse in the shape of garbage and other 
material, the pest is apt to breed. 

There is no satisfactory remedy for this mag- 
got when once it has infested a house. We cannot 
speak as to the effect of cyanide gas upon it, for, so 
far as we know, this remedy has not been tried. 
It is not practicable to pick the leaves, because in 
such cases the crowns are permanently injured 
and the flowering is, therefore, either entirely 



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61. — Larvse and moths of Phlyctsenia ferrugalis. 

stopped or checked. Air-slacked lime thrown 
into the crowns will be found beneficial. It should 
be thrown into the plant with considerable force 
and plenty should be allowed to reach the soil. 
Following this practice and giving the best cul- 
tural conditions possible, such as allowing plenty 
of air and stirring the soil, is about all that can be 
suggested in the line of treatment. 

Phlyctaenia femtgalis* Violet plants are 



PHLYCTiENIA FERRUGALIS. 215 

sometimes attacked during midsummer by the 
larva of a small moth. The insect has been 
identified for us by the Entomologist of the 
United States Department of Agriculture under 
the above name. The larvae attack the leaves, 
destroying the softer parts and leaving only 
the skeleton or framework of the tissues. The 
illustration does not show this plainly, as the 
camera does not distinguish the colors sufficiently. 
Plants grown in shady places are usually most 
liable to attack. Generally the worms are sur- 
rounded by a light web, and occasionally two leaves 
are fastened together in order to give them pro- 
tection. The insect never produces serious injury, 
but is is well to watch for it and take such steps 
to destroy it as may be practicable. It may be 
destroyed by picking the leaves containing the 
larvae, but by far the best method is fumigation 
with cyanide gas. Where this gas is used for 
other pests the insect in question is easily kept in 
check. 



2 10 COST AND PROFITS. 



CHAPTER IX. 



COST OF PRODUCTION AND PROFITS. 

In a matter of this kind it is difficult to give 
anything but approximate figures. Location, 
proximity to market, ability to get .fuel, soil, and 
manure, the cost of labor, etc., are all factors 
that play an important part in making an estimate 
as to the actual cost of producing the crop. In 
making an estimate it will be necessary to take 
into consideration the value of the ground, the 
cost of houses, and in fact everything connected 
with the work, just as a commercial man would 
consider all phases of his business in any effort at 
determining profit and loss. It will be best to 
make the estimates on a definite number of plants, 
as it is easier to figure from this standpoint, as 
a matter of fact, that the cost of production will 
be relatively less for ten thousand plants than it 
is for five thousand. The same will hold true as 
we decrease the number of plants — that is, five 
thousand can be grown at relatively less cost than 
one thousand. There are a number of reasons 
for this, chief of which is the fact that the more 
plants there are the more possible it is for the 
grower to so arrange all of his operations as not to 



COST OF PRODUCTION 217 

have a loss of material or time. For instance. 



it costs less relatively to heat houses holding- ten 
thousand plants than it does to heat houses hold- 
ing five thousand. The same will hold true for 
labor, for soil, for fertilizers, and in fact for all 
matters connected with the work. 

Under ordinary conditions, such as we find in 
the vicinity of many of our large cities, we may 
place the cost of ground and houses sufficient for 
ten thousand plants at three thousand dollars. In 
some respects this is an over-estimate, but it is 
based on the fact that ground used for this pur- 
pose is worth not less than five to seven hundred 
dollars an acre and that the houses are of the 
same kind as those we have already described. 
We have therefore to estimate as one of the items 
of the cost of production the interest on the 
money invested in houses, ground, and other 
fixtures connected with the work. We may put 
this as a total at three thousand five hundred 
dollars, so that the interest at six per cent would 
be two hundred and ten dollars. There is also 
to be considered the question of wear and tear on 
the houses and other materials used in connection 
with growing the plants. This may be placed at 
not less than eight per cent a year. In other 
words, renovating walks, replacing broken glass, 
painting, and other necessary repairs will cost 
not less than two hundred and eighty dollars a 
year. 



2l8 COST AND PROFITS. 

The cost of fuel will of course vary widely, 
but under ordinary conditions, that is, in regions 
where the temperature seldom goes lower than 
twelve degrees below zero for any length of time, 
the amount of fuel necessary to heat houses hold- 
ing ten thousand plants will probably not exceed 
one hundred and twenty-five dollars. 

The cost of labor, not including that of the 
grower himself, which is not estimated here, 
should not exceed three hundred and fifty dollars 
per year. In other words the grower himself 
with the assistance of one good man can easily 
handle ten thousand plants. It may be necessary 
to make some allowance for the busy season, 
when possibly an extra man would have to be 
taken on for a month. With the grower under- 
standing his business it is not necessary to have 
an expert as an assistant. An ordinary laborer, 
provided he is quick, active, and willing to work, 
will answer every purpose. Such help can be 
obtained for twenty-five to thirty dollars per 
month. Labor, therefore, we estimate at three 
hundred and fifty dollars per year. For inci- 
dentals, including express charges and various 
minor matters, we estimate one hundred dollars. 
These figures will vary, of course, in different 
localities but are, we believe, a fair average. 

Summarized, the total outlay for ten thousand 
plants per year is as follows : 



COST OF PRODUCTION. 219 

Interest on money invested in ground, houses, etc $210 

Repairs - 280 

Fuel 125 

Labor 350 

Incidentals 100 

Total, $1,065 

The total output of money per year, there- 
fore, in growing ten thousand plants is estimated 
at one thousand and sixty-five dollars. This 
is an expenditure of practically ten cents per 
plant, so that the actual cost of maintaining 
and growing each plant, basing the estimate 
on ten thousand plants, is practically ten cents. 
We have given what in our judgment is a fair 
average, but of course these figures can be re- 
duced by rigid attention to details and a thor- 
ough knowledge of all the points necessarily 
connected with the work. If the owner is willing 
to take a hand and to attend largely to the firing 
and look after the watering and ventilation, the 
cost will be materially decreased. If, on the other 
hand, he delegates this work to others he must 
necessarily pay for it, and in consequence the cost 
of production will be increased. 

Turning our attention now to the other phase 
of the question, namely, the profits, we are con- 
fronted at the outset with the same difficulties as 
mentioned in the first instance — that is, the profits 
will depend in large measure on the market, on 
the ability of the man to properly handle his crop, 
and above all on the quality of the product. 



220 COST AND PROFITS. 

It must be understood that at first the grower 
will have to be content with relatively low prices, 
for the reason that he has yet to make a reputation, 
and until this is accomplished he may not hope to 
command from the market the highest returns. 
There is always an opening for good stock, but, as 
we have pointed out elsewhere, it is not only 
necessary to have the stock good, but it is of the 
highest importance that it should be so handled 
and so put on the market as to create a demand 
for it. As soon as the demand is created it is not 
so difficult to increase prices. 

As to the yield of flowers per plant, this will 
depend altogether on the knowledge of the grower. 
Ordinarily fifty flowers per plant is considered 
a good average, but there is no reason why this 
average should not be increased to seventy-five or 
even one hundred. The grower should not 
be content with less than one hundred 
salable flowers per plant, and his aim 
and effort should be to succeed in mak- 
ing every plant average this number. 
On the basis of fifty flowers per plant, however, 
the total yield from ten thousand plants would be 
five hundred thousand flowers. If the yield be 
increased to one hundred flowers per plant the 
total number of flowers is of course doubled. 
Now this doubling of the total number of flowers 
does not mean the doubling of the cost of pro- 
duction at all. In fact the cost of producing 



PRICES FOR FLOWERS. 22 1 

one hundred flowers per plant is relatively little 
more than producing fifty. The main addi- 
tional item of cost to be considered is that con- 
nected with the handling of the crop, which is a 
relatively small amount. Let us assume, how- 
ever, that the grower averages fifty flowers per 
plant, and that he is so situated that the best 
prices he is able to command will not average 
over sixty cents per hundred for the season. This 
will mean that he receives approximately the 
following prices: 

October flowers $0.50 per hundred 

November flowers 0.50 per hundred 

December flowers 1. 00 per hundred 

January flowers 0.75 per hundred 

February flowers 0.50 per hundred 

March flowers 0.50 per hundred 

April flowers 0.50 per hundred 

Average 0.60 per hundred 

The seven months, as already indicated, will 
give him an average of sixty cents, providing his 
plants yield as they ordinarily do — that is, a heavy 
flowering in November, March, and April, with 
lighter crops during the other months. If he can 
by a proper handling of his plants and by proper 
selection so change the flowering period as to get 
the heaviest yields during the months of Decem- 
ber, January, and February, he can, as will 
readily be seen, increase his average, because the 
flowers will be worth more at this time. In other 
words, it is far better to get fifty thousand flowers 



222 COST AND PROFITS. 

in December and twenty-five thousand in March 
than to get twenty-five thousand in December and 
fifty thousand in March. 

It is entirely within the range of possibility to 
so grow the crop as to materially increase the 
number of flowers during the regular winter 
months. The average of sixty cents is com- 
paratively low and should not be considered as 
the limit by any means. With a reputation estab- 
lished for growing good flowers, and for putting 
them in the market in a fresh state and always in 
excellent condition, the range, of prices can be 
materially increased. A good grower should not 
be content unless he can average the following: 

October flowers #0.50 per hundred 

November flowers 0.75 per hundred 

December flowers 1.50 per hundred 

January flowers 2.00 per hundred 

February flowers 0.75 per hundred 

March flowers 0.50 per hundred 

April flowers 0.50 per hundred 

Average 0.90 per hundred 

This gives an average for the seven months of 
practically ninety cents, or an advance over the 
first figures of thirty cents per hundred. It is 
figures of this kind that show the possibilities 
within the reach of the intelligent grower. There 
is no reason why his flowers should not average 
him 90 cents, and furthermore there is no reason 
why each plant should not be grown so as to 
yield an average of one hundred flowers per plant. 



NET PROFITS. 223 

As an example of what may be accomplished we 
give the yields for eight months of fourteen 
hundred Lady Hume Campbell plants 
in one of our houses and the prices, as follows : 

October, 1897, 8,000 flowers So. 50 per hundred 

November, 1897, n ,950 flowers 0.75 per hundred 

December, 1897, 12,000 flowers 1. 00 per hundred 

January, 1898, 11,830 flowers 1.25 per hundred 

February, 1898, 17,250 flowers 0.75 per hundred 

March, 1898, 23,900 flowers 0.75 per hundred 

April, 1898, 23,850 flowers 0.50 per hundred 

May, 1898, 3,800 flowers 0.50 per hundred 

Total 112,580 Average #0.75 per hundred 

It will be seen that this house, containing 
fourteen hundred plants, yielded an average of 
eighty flowers per plant, and the average price 
received was seventy-five cents per hundred, so 
that the value of the yield of each plant was sixty 
cents. 

On the basis of an average of sixty cents per 
hundred, the total value of the yield from ten 
thousand plants would be three thousand dollars, 
or thirty cents per plant. We have already seen 
that the cost of producing such a plant is ten 
cents, so that the net profit is twenty cents per 
plant, or two thousand dollars for the establish- 
ment. On the other hand, if the average price 
obtained were ninety cents per hundred flowers, 
the net profit would be thirty-five cents per 
plant, or three thousand five hundred dollars for 
the establishment. Again, if the average yield is 



224 COST AND PROFITS. 

increased, as it should be, to seventy- five or one 
hundred flowers per plant, the profits will be 
increased approximately sixty-four and one hun- 
dred and twenty-eight per cent respectively. 

On the whole, it may be said that the income 
from ten thousand plants grown in houses and 
handled properly should year in and year out 
average five thousand six hundred dollars, while 
the total expenses should not exceed one thousand 
five hundred dollars. This means an average yield 
of seventy-five flowers jger plant and an average 
price of seventy-five cents per hundred flowers. 

Violets can be grown in frames cheaper tfian 
they can in houses. With good care the total cost 
per plant will not exceed five cents, or ten cents 
per hundred for the flowers, reckoning that the 
average yield of the latter is fifty flowers per 
plant. Such flowers ought to net the grower 
fifty cents per hundred, leaving a profit over 
all expenses of forty cents per hundred, or 
approximately four dollars per sash. Finally, it 
must be remembered that while these figures are 
fair averages, and are based on actual experience, 
they cannot be approximated without strict atten- 
tion to every detail. 




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